The nexus between gender equality and the right to development

The right to development is the human right of every human person and all peoples to participate in, contribute to and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development. However, due to persistent gender inequalities, patriarchal norms and structural barriers, women and girls, who comprise about half of the world’s population, are unable to realize their right to development.

In the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses on the mutually reinforcing nexus between gender equality and the right to development. Without gender equality, the right to development cannot be realized, not only for girls and women, but for anyone, irrespective of their gender. At the same time, the realization of the right to development would lead to gender equality.

The elaboration of the nexus between gender equality and the right to development is pertinent for three reasons. First, the nexus between gender equality and the right to development has received very limited attention. In fact, the right to development is sometimes considered to be in opposition to the achievement of gender equality. The polarization between States championing gender equality and States promoting the right to development reflects that divide. It is important to overcome such misconceptions and underscore the nexus between the two.

Second, 2025 is an important year for gender equality because the world community is commemorating the thirtieth anniversary of the adoption of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, a landmark document providing a blueprint for achieving substantive gender equality. Moreover, Sustainable Development Goal 5 on achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls is set to be reviewed at the high-level political forum on sustainable development.

Third, in recent years, the backlash against gender equality has become more prominent, with attempts to roll back substantial gains made over the years.¹ It is critical to reinforce the importance of gender equality as a cross-cutting foundational right that should not fluctuate with changes in the political winds.

1. See A/HRC/56/51 and A/HRC/38/46. ↩

In the present report, the Special Rapporteur seeks to achieve three main objectives. First, he describes the nexus between gender equality and the right to development. The enjoyment of gender equality by girls and women would lead to the realization of all four facets of their right to development: economic, social, cultural and political development. Conversely, realizing the right to development of girls and women would result in gender equality.

Second, he illustrates the ways in which ensuring gender equality for girls and women would have a ripple effect on realizing the right to development for all. In fact, when girls and women are enabled as agents of change, they contribute to a more inclusive, peaceful and sustainable world.

Third, the Special Rapporteur explains the ways in which various aspects of the right to development, including the collective dimension, participation in decision-making, fair distribution, international cooperation and intersectionality, should be leveraged to achieve substantive gender equality in society.

In the report, Special Rapporteur builds on international standards on gender equality and the right to development. He also draws on relevant literature and the practices of States and other actors. His analysis and recommendations are informed by insights gained from engagement with many stakeholders over the years.

In response to the Special Rapporteur’s call for input, about 70 submissions were received from States and other stakeholders.² The Special Rapporteur also conducted in-person consultations in Geneva and Suva and organized four virtual consultations to engage representatives of various non-State actors from all world regions. In addition, he had bilateral conversations with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) and members of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls. The Special Rapporteur is grateful to all stakeholders for providing input in various forms.

2. All submissions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2025/call-input-2025-reports. ↩

In the report, the Special Rapporteur focuses on gender equality from the perspective of women and girls, applying an intersectional perspective. The focus on women and girls, however, is not meant to suggest that men and boys or non-binary persons do not face discrimination. Gender equality concerns every human being.

The Special Rapporteur acknowledges that, owing to space constraints, it was not possible to refer to all the international standards on gender equality or the right to development. Nor was it possible to examine all strands of the nexus between gender equality and the right to development.

As the brief review below shows, gender equality is a foundational and cross-cutting norm of most international normative standards on human rights and the right to development.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights promotes gender equality. Several women played a critical role in ensuring that women were treated equally in the Declaration. Hansa Mehta is widely credited for replacing the phrase “all men are born free and equal” with “all human beings are born free and equal” in article 1.³ Article 2 makes that concept explicit, providing that “everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.” The focus on equality is manifested throughout the Declaration, as most of its provisions use the term “everyone” or “no one” in reference to various human rights and freedoms.

3. See https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2018/03/role-women-shaping-universal-declaration-human-rights. ↩

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights strengthen further the foundations of gender equality. In addition to incorporating a non-discrimination clause in article 2, both Covenants expressly require States Parties to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights (art. 3). That is reinforced by the guarantee in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of equality before courts and tribunals (art. 14), the equality of rights and responsibilities of spouses as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution (art. 23), equal suffrage (art. 25) and equality before the law and the equal protection of the law (art. 26). The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights similarly guarantees equal remuneration for work of equal value (art. 7) and equal access to higher education to all (art. 13).

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women marked a critical milestone in eliminating multifaceted discrimination against women. It defined discrimination in a broad sense to include “any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field” (art. 1). Under article 2, States Parties agreed to embody the principle of the equality of men and women in their national constitutions or other appropriate legislation and to take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women by any non-State actors. Article 3 required States Parties to take all appropriate measures to ensure the full development and advancement of women in all fields, especially in the political, social, economic and cultural fields. The special focus on the development and advancement of women in those fields corresponded with the four facets of the right to development: economic, social, political and cultural development

The Convention acknowledged the role of temporary special measures in achieving substantive gender equality (art. 4) and the importance of modifying social and cultural customs or practices that are discriminatory to women or perpetuate stereotyped roles for men and women (art. 5). The Convention also contained specific provisions to eliminate discrimination against women in political and public life, to enable women to represent Governments at the international level and participate in the work of international organizations and to ensure equal rights with men in the fields of education, employment, healthcare, marriage and family relations and in concluding contracts and administering property.

Another key contribution of the Convention was its attention to safeguarding the sexual and reproductive health and rights of women, something that had not received adequate attention in generic human rights instruments. The Convention also introduced the intersectional dimension of discrimination, with article 14 focused on the specific problems faced by rural women. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has further elaborated on the transformative potential of the Convention in the achievement of gender equality through various general recommendations.⁴ For example, the Committee has underlined the importance of adopting an intersectional approach, given that discrimination against women and girls in all their diversity is inextricably linked to other factors that affect their lives.⁵

4. See https://www.ohchr.org/en/treaty-bodies/cedaw/general-recommendations. ↩
5. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 35 (2017), para. 12. ↩

The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women in September 1995, remains the most ambitious road map to achieving substantive gender equality. The Beijing Declaration reaffirms that women’s rights are human rights and encourages men to participate fully in all actions aiming towards equality. It also makes the connection between the advancement and empowerment of women and the goals of achieving peace, sustainable development and environmental justice. Moreover, the Beijing Declaration recognizes the need to mobilize resources at the national and international levels for the advancement of women, especially new and additional resources for developing countries.

Building on the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women and other normative developments, the Platform for Action lays down an agenda for women’s empowerment, including by “removing all the obstacles to women’s active participation in all spheres of public and private life through a full and equal share in economic, social, cultural and political decision-making” (para. 1). Twelve key areas in which urgent action is needed are identified in the Platform for Action: women and poverty; education and training of women; women and health; violence against women; women and armed conflict; women and the economy; women in power and decision-making; institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women; human rights of women; women and the media; women and the environment; and the girl-child. In addition to Governments, a role in all of those areas is envisaged for the international community, non-governmental organizations and the private sector.

The Women’s Empowerment Principles are a set of seven principles offering guidance to business on how to advance gender equality and women’s empowerment in the workplace, marketplace and community.⁶ Under the principles, businesses are expected to establish high-level corporate leadership, treat all women and men fairly at work without discrimination, ensure the health, safety and well-being of all employees, promote women’s education, training and professional development, implement supply chain and marketing practices that empower women and promote equality through community initiatives and advocacy.

6. See https://www.weps.org/about. ↩

The Principles provide targeted practical steps that businesses should take. However, considering the vital role of the private sector in all aspects of people’s lives and the global economy, businesses should not limit themselves to those action areas but should take gender-responsive and gender-transformative measures throughout their global operations.⁷

7. See A/HRC/41/43. ↩

The preamble of the Declaration on the Right to Development acknowledges the obligation of States under the Charter of the United Nations “to promote universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status”. As the right to development is a human right of “every human person and all peoples”, women and girls have that right both in an individual capacity and as a group and they “are entitled to participate in, contribute to and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development” (art. 1). Participation in decision-making should be active, free and meaningful.

Since States have “the duty to formulate appropriate national development policies that aim at the constant improvement of the well-being of the entire population and of all individuals” (art. 2 (3)), such policies must not leave behind women and girls. That is reinforced by article 8, which provides that States should ensure “equality of opportunity for all in their access to basic resources, education, health services, food, housing, employment and the fair distribution of income”. States should also undertake effective measures “to ensure that women have an active role in the development process”. Considering that women and girls are disproportionately affected by conflicts and wars, the provision encouraging States to “promote the establishment, maintenance and strengthening of international peace and security” and to use the resources released by effective disarmament measures for comprehensive development is critical (art. 7). 6 See https://www.weps.org/about. 7 See A/HRC/41/43. GE.25-11163

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development seeks “to achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls”; the aspiration is to create a “world in which every woman and girl enjoys full gender equality and all legal, social and economic barriers to their empowerment have been removed”.⁸ While Sustainable Development Goal 5 is focused on achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls, gender equality should be seen as a cross-cutting thread running across all 17 Goals and 169 targets.

8. General Assembly resolution 70/1, preamble and paras. 3, 8 and 20. ↩

Sustainable Development Goal 5 envisages ending all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere. That includes eliminating all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres and all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation. States and other actors should value unpaid care and domestic work. They should also ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life. Equally important is ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights, undertaking reforms to give women equal rights to economic resources and access to the ownership of and control over land and other forms of property and enhancing the use of enabling technology to promote the empowerment of women.

When adopting the Pact for the Future in September 2024,⁹ Heads of State and Governments affirmed their commitment to accelerating efforts to achieve gender equality, women’s participation and the empowerment of all women and girls in all domains and to eliminate all forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls (para. 15). They also reaffirmed that gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls was an essential prerequisite for sustainable development (para. 19).

9. General Assembly resolution 79/1. ↩

Action 8 of the Pact is focused on achieving gender equality because sustained, inclusive and equitable economic growth and sustainable development can only be realized when all women, adolescent girls and girls have their full human rights respected, protected and fulfilled. In the Pact, States agree to take “bold, ambitious, accelerated, just and transformative actions to ensure the full and equal enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms by all women and girls” and to “urgently remove all legal, social and economic barriers to achieve gender equality and ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life”. They also agree to significantly increase investments to close the gender gap, including in the care and support economy, acknowledging the linkage between poverty and gender inequality.

The importance of achieving gender equality in relation to peace and security (action 19) is stressed as is science, technology and innovation (action 31). Gender equality is also an underpinning principle in the Global Digital Compact and the Declaration on Future Generations.

Despite a plethora of international normative standards and law and policies at the national level, achieving gender equality in practice remains a distant dream. A lack of gender equality is correlated directly with all four facets (economic, social, cultural and political) of the right to development. If girls and women do not enjoy substantive equality, their right to development cannot be realized.¹⁰ At the same time, the realization of the four facets of the right to development would contribute to achieving gender equality. Therefore, all States 8 General Assembly resolution 70/1, preamble and paras. 3, 8 and 20. 9 General Assembly resolution 79/1. 10 See submission from Biobele Danagogo. GE.25-11163 should embrace this mutually reinforcing nexus between gender equality and the right to development.

10. See submission from Biobele Danagogo. ↩

Girls and women continue to face various forms of discrimination in both the private and public spheres. A recent report by the World Bank revealed the shocking extent of legally mandated discrimination faced by women.¹¹ Women enjoy less than two thirds of the legal rights available to men. Although 98 economies have enacted legislation mandating equal pay for women for work of equal value, only 35 economies have adopted enforcement mechanisms to address the pay gap. While 151 economies have laws in place prohibiting sexual harassment in the workplace, just 39 have laws prohibiting it in public spaces. In 62 economies, the age of retirement for women is lower than that of men. In 28 economies, a woman cannot pass her nationality on to her children in the same way as a man.

11. World Bank, Women, Business and the Law 2024 (Washington D.C., 2024), p. ix. ↩

According to The Gender Snapshot 2024, none of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 5 have been met, with only targets 5.5.1 (women in local governments) and 5.6.2 (reproductive health laws) close to target. Those that are at a moderate distance to target include 5.1.1 (non-discriminatory legal frameworks), 5.2.1 (intimate partner violence), 5.3.1 (child marriage), 5.5.1 (women in national parliaments) and 5.5.2 (women in managerial positions), while goals that are far from target include 5.4.1 (unpaid domestic work), 5.6.1 (reproductive health decision-making) and 5.b.1 (women who own a mobile phone).¹² The Global Gender Gap Report 2025 of the World Economic Forum reveals that gender-based industry segregation persists, with women still concentrated in lower-paying, people-centric industries.¹³

12. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and UN-Women, Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The Gender Snapshot 2024 (New York, 2024), pp. 24–29. ↩
13. See World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report 2025: Insight Report June 2025 (Geneva, 2025). ↩

In 2024, women spent 2.5 times more hours than men on unpaid domestic work.¹⁴ The lack of affordable childcare and flexible work options excludes women with caregiving responsibilities from gaining economic independence.¹⁵ Women’s reproductive freedom remains restricted and the gap between the access of women and men to economic resources, land ownership and technology is still significant.¹⁶ Gender bias is also prevalent in artificial intelligence data and systems.¹⁷ The practice of child and forced marriage continues to affect millions of girls and women. It is estimated that it will take 300 years to end child marriage, 286 years to close gaps in legal protection and remove discriminatory laws, 140 years for women to be represented equally in positions of power and leadership in the workplace and 47 years to achieve equal representation in national parliaments.¹⁸

14. The Gender Snapshot 2024, p. 2; and A/HRC/59/45. ↩
15. See submission from Defence for Children International and Plan International. ↩
16. The Gender Snapshot 2024, p. 12. ↩
17. See https://www.unwomen.org/en/articles/explainer/artificial-intelligence-and-gender-equality. ↩
18. See https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2023/Goal-05. ↩

Women are disproportionately affected by poverty, climate change, conflicts and new technologies.¹⁹ 19 Climate change is also exacerbating existing gender inequalities.²⁰ 20 For example, climate-induced disasters further expose girls and women to exploitation, as they may face sexual violence in emergency shelters.²¹ Due to social stigma or non-recognition, lesbian and bisexual women may be left out of disaster relief programmes,²² while women without land ownership face higher levels of food insecurity linked to climate disasters. 11 World Bank, Women, Business and the Law 2024 (Washington D.C., 2024), p. ix. 12 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and UN-Women, Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The Gender Snapshot 2024 (New York, 2024), pp. 24–29. 13 See World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report 2025: Insight Report June 2025 (Geneva, 2025). 14 The Gender Snapshot 2024, p. 2; and A/HRC/59/45. 15 See submission from Defence for Children International and Plan International. 16 The Gender Snapshot 2024, p. 12. 17 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/articles/explainer/artificial-intelligence-and-gender-equality. 18 See https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2023/Goal-05. 19 See joint submission from Instituto Amazônico de Agriculturas Familiares, Universidade Federal do Pará; Aimara Institute; ActionAid Brasil; Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas; Federal University of Bahia; Defensoria Pública do Estado de São Paulo; and Defensoria Pública do Rio de Janeiro. See also submission from Legal Research Consortium. 20 See https://datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgatlas/goal-5-gender-equality?lang=en. 21 See submission from Center for Gender & Refugee Studies. 22 See submission from Out of Sustainability. GE.25-11163 Moreover, the current energy transition model, which relies on large-scale hydropower, wind and solar projects, exacerbates structural inequalities, disproportionately harming Indigenous, Quilombola, fishing and rural women.²³

19. See joint submission from Instituto Amazônico de Agriculturas Familiares, Universidade Federal do Pará; Aimara Institute; ActionAid Brasil; Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas; Federal University of Bahia; Defensoria Pública do Estado de São Paulo; and Defensoria Pública do Rio de Janeiro. See also submission from Legal Research Consortium. ↩
20. See https://datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgatlas/goal-5-gender-equality?lang=en. ↩
21. See submission from Center for Gender & Refugee Studies. ↩
22. See submission from Out of Sustainability. ↩
23. See joint submission from Instituto Amazônico de Agriculturas Familiares, Universidade Federal do Pará; Aimara Institute; ActionAid Brasil; Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas; Federal University of Bahia; Defensoria Pública do Estado de São Paulo; and Defensoria Pública do Rio de Janeiro. ↩

Women human rights and environmental defenders and girl climate activists, who are at the forefront of efforts to protect human rights, biodiversity and the environment and to achieve gender justice, climate justice, tax justice and corporate accountability, are disproportionately under attack in all world regions.²⁴

24. See Nidhi Tandon and others, “Women human rights defenders”, Gender & Development, vol. 31, No. 1 (May 2023). See also https://www.unwomen.org/en/articles/explainer/how-women-human-rights-defenders-are-under-threat-worldwide. ↩

Key barriers to persistent and pervasive gender equality include patriarchal social norms and cultural barriers, discrimination within the family, discriminatory laws, weak enforcement mechanisms, limited access to education, neglected sexual and reproductive health and rights of women and girls, the digital divide and poverty.²⁵ The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic also deepened existing gender inequality.²⁶

25. See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/feature-story/2023/09/the-11-biggest-hurdles-for-womens-equality-by-2030. ↩
26. See Paola Profeta, “Gender equality and the COVID-19 pandemic: labour market, family relationships and public policy”, Intereconomics: Review of European Economic Policy, vol. 56, No. 5 (2021). ↩

There is a positive relationship between gender equality and the four facets of the right to development: economic, social, cultural and political development. Conversely, a lack of equality for girls and women will result in their non-enjoyment of those facets of development.

Economic development is not equal to the right to development, nor does the obsessive focus on increasing gross domestic product or pursuing cumulative economic growth ensure that development is inclusive. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognized in 2009 that “economic growth has not, in itself, led to sustainable development, and individuals and groups of individuals continue to face socioeconomic inequality, often because of entrenched historical and contemporary forms of discrimination”.²⁷

27. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009), para. 1. ↩

Discrimination faced by girls and women has a direct negative impact on their economic development. It is estimated that, globally, less than 15 per cent of all landholders are women,²⁸ including because laws in some countries do not allow them to own land. Even when women own land, they often lack decision-making power, as men typically control resource management.²⁹ Many women face harassment in the workplace or public spaces and do not enjoy pay parity with men.³⁰ Women entrepreneurs in conflict zones not only face gender-based discrimination but also the additional burdens imposed by sociopolitical instability.³¹ 31 Such exclusions and discrimination limit the economic development opportunities available to girls and women. The negative impact is not limited to women’s economic development, however. Gender inequality costs Africa around $95 billion 23 See joint submission from Instituto Amazônico de Agriculturas Familiares, Universidade Federal do Pará; Aimara Institute; ActionAid Brasil; Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas; Federal University of Bahia; Defensoria Pública do Estado de São Paulo; and Defensoria Pública do Rio de Janeiro. 24 See Nidhi Tandon and others, “Women human rights defenders”, Gender & Development, vol. 31, No. 1 (May 2023). See also https://www.unwomen.org/en/articles/explainer/how-women-humanrights-defenders-are-under-threat-worldwide. 25 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/feature-story/2023/09/the-11-biggest-hurdles-forwomens-equality-by-2030. 26 See Paola Profeta, “Gender equality and the COVID-19 pandemic: labour market, family relationships and public policy”, Intereconomics: Review of European Economic Policy, vol. 56, No. 5 (2021). 27 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009), para. 1. 28 See Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, “The gender gap in land rights”, policy brief/paper (2018). 29 See submission from Center for Gender & Refugee Studies. 30 See joint submission from Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development, Awaz Foundation Pakistan: Centre for Development Services and Law & Society Trust. 31 See joint submission from Ramsa Jaan and Irfan Pullani. GE.25-11163 annually, with women contributing only 33 per cent to the gross domestic product despite making up more than half of the population.³²

28. See Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, “The gender gap in land rights”, policy brief/paper (2018). ↩
29. See submission from Center for Gender & Refugee Studies. ↩
30. See joint submission from Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development, Awaz Foundation Pakistan: Centre for Development Services and Law & Society Trust. ↩
31. See joint submission from Ramsa Jaan and Irfan Pullani. ↩
32. See submission from Elizka Relief Foundation. ↩

There is evidence that gender equality measures, such as gender-responsive budgeting, result directly in the economic empowerment of women and girls. Bosnia and Herzegovina reports that gender-responsive budgeting by the Ministry of Agriculture, Water Management and Forestry has led to significant increases in funding for rural women entrepreneurs.³³ The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela reports that its public budget law incorporates a gender approach, with resources allocated to such programmes as the Misión Hogares de la Patria, which benefits 3 million women living in poverty.³⁴ The Democratic Republic of the Congo is promoting budgetary justice by prioritizing women and girls in funding allocated for essential expenses, including those relating to bodily autonomy, sexual and reproductive health, education, nutrition, housing, access roads and transport.³⁵ Gender-responsive universal health coverage policies would also ensure that girls and women enjoy equal economic development opportunities, because underinvestment in health can result in the shouldering by women of more unpaid care work, affecting their economic development opportunities.³⁶

33. See submission from Bosnia and Herzegovina. ↩
34. See submission from the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (in Spanish). ↩
35. See submission from Avenir Mère – Enfant (in French). ↩
36. See submission from World Health Organization (WHO). ↩

Various countries are now taking proactive measures to use the positive linkage between gender equality and economic development. Ecuador reports that it promotes gender equality in the private sector through the Safe Company Seal, which certifies good business practices in terms of equal pay, work-life balance and the promotion of female leadership, while its National Agenda for Gender Equality 2021–2025 encourages State institutions to foster women’s access to credit, decent employment, social protection and land ownership.³⁷ Colombia reports that its Ministry of Labour has implemented subsidies to bring young mothers into the workforce.³⁸ Mexico reports that it has introduced several programmes to support women’s entrepreneurship, including the expansion of existing micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises owned or managed by women.³⁹

37. See submission from Ecuador (in Spanish). ↩
38. See submission from Colombia (in Spanish). ↩
39. See submission from Mexico (in Spanish). ↩

In the Beijing Platform for Action, it is rightly recalled that, while accelerated economic growth is necessary for social development, it does not by itself improve the quality of life of the population (para. 14). Social development requires the centring of people in development decisions. It requires the adoption of a full life-cycle approach, ensuring the well-being of individuals and offering them access to opportunities so that they can realize their full potential. To realize their social development, girls and women should have access to basic needs, the freedom to participate in all walks of life and an opportunity to take decisions. They should also enjoy a life free from mental or physical violence.

Girls and women experience harassment and violence at home, in the workplace, in the community and in cyberspace. They deal with sexism and stereotypes and bear a disproportionate burden in terms of childcare. All of those discriminatory practices have a direct negative effect on their social development. States and other actors should take effective measures to combat such practices. Patriarchal social norms should be dismantled, including by engaging men and boys in gender equality campaigns.⁴⁰ Legal reforms and economic incentives should be used to promote the raising of children as the shared responsibility of parents.

40. See submission from Aline Ribeiro Pereira. ↩

Another aspect critical to the social development of women is sexual and reproductive health and rights, which are central to gender equality and to women’s human rights.⁴¹ To realize social development, women should enjoy autonomy over decisions concerning contraceptives, family planning and abortion and they should have access to comprehensive sexuality education to prevent adolescent pregnancies and gender-based violence and to make informed decisions about their sexual and reproductive health and rights. Benin, for example, reports that it has added a new category to its Act No. 2021-12 to allow the voluntary termination of pregnancy,⁴² while Honduras reports that its Plan for Equality and Gender Justice focuses on sexual health education.⁴³

41. See A/HRC/47/38. See also submission from WHO and joint submission from Center for Reproductive Rights, International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association and International Planned Parenthood Federation. ↩
42. See submission from Benin (in French). ↩
43. See submission from Honduras (in Spanish). ↩

Cultural development, rooted in language, the arts, religious beliefs and traditions, is an integral aspect of the right to development. In acknowledgement of the role of culture for sustainable development, peace and stability, the 2022 Declaration of the World Conference on Cultural Policies and Sustainable Development of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization contains an affirmation of culture as a global public good and a call for its integration as a specific goal in its own right in the development agenda beyond 2030.⁴⁴ Diversity in culture should be used to promote gender equality, rather than undermine it. States should not invoke cultural or religious values to deny freedoms, autonomy or agency to women, including on the basis of their sexual orientation or gender identity.

44. See https://www.unesco.org/sites/default/files/medias/fichiers/2022/10/6.MONDIACULT_EN_ DRAFT%20FINAL%20DECLARATION_FINAL_1.pdf. ↩

Due to continued discriminatory norms, girls and women face stereotyped depictions in advertising and the media, which undermines their cultural development. The fashion industry also perpetuates gendered social norms.⁴⁵ Considering the increasing role and influence of social media, States and companies should take proactive measures to curb the sexist representation of women in advertising, social media and film. Spain, for example, reports that its Women’s Image Observatory is empowered to take steps to deal with sexist and stereotypical depictions of girls and women in advertising and the media.⁴⁶

45. See Gladys Lai, “Fashion has a gender problem, so what can we do about it?”, Vogue, 22 February 2021. ↩
46. See submission from Spain (in Spanish). ↩

The cultural development of women can be disrupted by displacement linked to just transition projects, often without adequate consultation or free, prior and informed consent in the case of Indigenous women. Such displacement underscores the reason why renewable energy should also be responsible energy. States should rely more on community-driven renewable energy projects. They should also leverage the positive role of women’s cooperatives in maintaining ecological integrity.⁴⁷

47. See submission from Ateliê Mukambu. ↩

Due to various discriminatory norms and practices, including gender-based violence, women continue to face barriers in realizing fully their political development. To illustrate, despite constituting about half of the world’s population, only 27.2 per cent of parliamentarians in single or lower houses are women and 107 countries have never had a woman Head of State.48 41 See A/HRC/47/38. See also submission from WHO and joint submission from Center for Reproductive Rights, International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association and International Planned Parenthood Federation. 42 See submission from Benin (in French). 43 See submission from Honduras (in Spanish). 44 See https://www.unesco.org/sites/default/files/medias/fichiers/2022/10/6.MONDIACULT_EN_ DRAFT%20FINAL%20DECLARATION_FINAL_1.pdf. 45 See Gladys Lai, “Fashion has a gender problem, so what can we do about it?”, Vogue, 22 February 2021. 46 See submission from Spain (in Spanish). 47 See submission from Ateliê Mukambu. 48 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/articles/facts-and-figures/facts-and-figures-womens-leadershipand-political-participation; and https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2024/09/fiveactions-to-boost-womens-political-participation. GE.25-11163

At the same time, many States are taking a variety of measures, including temporary special measures, to enhance the participation of women in political bodies at the national, provincial and local levels. Bosnia and Herzegovina reports that its Law on Gender Equality mandates at least 40 per cent representation for women in public and private bodies.⁴⁹ Spain reports that its Organic Act 2/2024 is aimed at ensuring equal representation and a balanced presence of women and men in leadership and decision-making bodies.⁵⁰ Benin reports that its electoral code was amended in 2019 to reserve 24 of the 109 deputy seats for women.⁵¹ Burundi reports that its 2015 Constitution ensures a minimum of 30 per cent representation of women in legislative, administrative and political organs.⁵² India reports that it amended its Constitution in 2023 to reserve one third of the total number of seats in the Lok Sabha (lower house of Parliament) and State legislative assemblies for women.⁵³ The Democratic Republic of the Congo has waived candidacy fees for female candidates to encourage their representation in political leadership.⁵⁴

49. See submission from Bosnia and Herzegovina. ↩
50. See submission from Spain (in Spanish). ↩
51. See submission from Benin (in French). ↩
52. See submission from Burundi (in French). ↩
53. See submission from India. ↩
54. See submission from Avenir Mère – Enfant (in French). ↩

Such measures improve gender equality and assist women in securing political participation. To illustrate, because of a 2010 law in Senegal instituting absolute parity between men and women in elective institutions, women’s representation in the parliament had increased to 44.2 per cent by 2022.⁵⁵

55. See submission from Senegal (in French). ↩

One should not, however, limit the political development of women to their representation in public bodies and institutions. Rather, political participation should be seen in a wider sense as encompassing all positions with decision-making roles affecting society, including in United Nations entities, multilateral bodies, companies, trade unions, civil society organizations and universities. It is a concern that, while women comprise about 67.2 per cent of the global health workforce, they remain significantly underrepresented in senior leadership roles.⁵⁶ Mauritius reports that, to ensure a greater representation of women in corporate leadership, women must comprise a minimum of 25 per cent of the board members of listed companies.⁵⁷ India reports that, under its Companies Act, 2013, all listed companies must have at least one woman on their board of directors.⁵⁸ Similarly to companies, steps should be taken to increase women’s representation in the leadership of trade unions. Moreover, international financial institutions should aim to achieve the equal representation of women on their boards and in senior leadership.⁵⁹

56. See submission from WHO. ↩
57. See submission from Mauritius. ↩
58. See submission from India. ↩
59. See submission from Susan Engel and Annabel Dulhunty. ↩

Gender equality is critical not merely for girls and women. Rather, gender equality is beneficial for all human beings. When girls and women are enabled as agents of change, they contribute to creating a more inclusive, peaceful and sustainable world. Various types of reforms can contribute to establishing such an enabling environment, including redressing disadvantages, addressing stereotyping, stigma, prejudice and violence, facilitating the voices and participation of women and girls and bringing about systemic or institutional change.⁶⁰

60. Sandra Fredman, Working Together: Human Rights, the Sustainable Development Goals and Gender Equality (London, The British Academy, 2018), p. 4. ↩

Transformative education, participatory media and the reform of religious and cultural institutions can also play vital roles in dismantling patriarchal norms.⁶¹ Tailored financial support, digital literacy initiatives, mentorship and capacity-building programmes can enable 49 See submission from Bosnia and Herzegovina. 50 See submission from Spain (in Spanish). 51 See submission from Benin (in French). 52 See submission from Burundi (in French). 53 See submission from India. 54 See submission from Avenir Mère – Enfant (in French). 55 See submission from Senegal (in French). 56 See submission from WHO. 57 See submission from Mauritius. 58 See submission from India. 59 See submission from Susan Engel and Annabel Dulhunty. 60 Sandra Fredman, Working Together: Human Rights, the Sustainable Development Goals and Gender Equality (London, The British Academy, 2018), p. 4. 61 See submission from Natalie Rulloda. GE.25-11163 women to become agents of change.⁶² Creating leadership opportunities for girls and women is equally critical. The Women Leadership and Advocacy Training programme in Mauritius, for example, builds leadership skills among women.⁶³ Moreover, a shift is needed towards a feminist economy that prioritizes public, rights-based investments in care infrastructure and requires companies to conduct gender-responsive human rights due diligence.⁶⁴

61. See submission from Natalie Rulloda. ↩
62. See submission from Ramsa Jaan and Irfan Pullani. ↩
63. See submission from Mauritius. ↩
64. See submission from Oxfam International. ↩

Below, the Special Rapporteur showcases the role of girls and women as agents of change in achieving inclusive growth, a peaceful world and sustainable economies.

The current economic development model is leaving too many people behind. There is evidence suggesting that, if women are at the helm, they contribute to more inclusive growth. For example, women leaders in Rwanda have played a key role in ensuring inclusive growth, including through financial inclusion and by granting women the right to own and inherit property.⁶⁵ Inclusive governance in Rwanda, where women hold 64 per cent of parliamentary seats, has not only contributed to equitable development across sectors but also promoted stability and reduced corruption.⁶⁶ During the COVID-19 pandemic, women leaders spearheaded the adoption of more socially inclusive policies.⁶⁷ Similarly, women-owned businesses have been showing resilience in Ukraine during the ongoing war.⁶⁸

65. See https://www.inclusivesecurity.org/how-women-helped-rebuild-rwanda. ↩
66. See Swanee Hunt, Rwandan Women Rising (Durham, North Carolina, Duke University Press, 2017). ↩
67. See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2021/Effective-decisive-and-inclusive-Womens-leadership-in-COVID-19-response-and-recovery-en.pdf. ↩
68. See submission from International Lab on Business and Human Rights. ↩

Farming cooperatives and small businesses led by women have lifted millions of people out of poverty. In 2015, it was reported that companies with the highest gender diversity in executive teams were 22 per cent more likely to outperform their less diverse peers in profitability and 67 per cent more likely to achieve superior value creation.⁶⁹ Gender equality in the workplace would increase global gross domestic product by $28 trillion, or 26 per cent,⁷⁰ including because of the increased productivity brought by women’s unique skills.⁷¹

69. See https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/featured insights/gender equality/how inclusive leadership leads to inclusive growth/diversity-matters-infographic.pdf?. ↩
70. See https://www.cfr.org/womens-participation-in-global-economy. ↩
71. See https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2019/03/closing-the-gender-gap-dabla. ↩

There is, thus, a strong case for all institutions, including States and companies, to enable diversity so as to reap the economic benefits. States should embrace a care economy model in which diverse contributions are valued equally, no one is left behind and harmony with nature is preserved. Such a model should be rooted in international human rights law,⁷² centre the role of girls and women and count unpaid domestic and care work – disproportionately performed by girls and women – as part of a country’s gross domestic product.73 62 See submission from Ramsa Jaan and Irfan Pullani. 63 See submission from Mauritius. 64 See submission from Oxfam International. 65 See https://www.inclusivesecurity.org/how-women-helped-rebuild-rwanda. 66 See Swanee Hunt, Rwandan Women Rising (Durham, North Carolina, Duke University Press, 2017). 67 See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications /2021/Effective-decisive-and-inclusive-Womens-leadership-in-COVID-19-response-and-recoveryen.pdf. 68 See submission from International Lab on Business and Human Rights. 69 See https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/featured insights/gender equality/how inclusive leadership leads to inclusive growth/diversity-matters-infographic.pdf?. 70 See https://www.cfr.org/womens-participation-in-global-economy. 71 See https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/fandd/issues/2019/03/closing-the-gender-gap-dabla. 72 See A/HRC/58/43. 73 See A/HRC/59/45. GE.25-11163

72. See A/HRC/58/43. ↩

Militarization and conflicts in the world are related directly to masculine leadership. Evidence suggests that not only do women not generally start armed conflicts but they are also better at securing and sustaining peace.⁷⁴ Their participation in peace negotiations contributes to the quality and durability of peace, as recognized in Security Council resolution 1325 (2000).

74. See Jana Krause, Werner Krause, and Piia Bränfors, “Women’s participation in peace negotiations and the durability of peace”, International Interactions, vol. 44, No. 6 (10 August 2018). ↩

The 2016 Final Agreement for Ending the Conflict and Building a Stable and Lasting Peace of Colombia included a recognition of the disproportionate impact of armed conflict on women⁷⁵ and gender parity provisions for the transitional justice system.⁷⁶ Women also play a critical role in informal peace processes.⁷⁷ The positive role of women in ensuring peace explains why 112 countries and territories have adopted national action plans on women, peace and security.⁷⁸

75. See submission from Colombia (in Spanish). ↩
76. See Julieta Lemaitre, “Transitional justice and the challenges of a feminist peace”, International Journal of Constitutional Law, vol. 18, No. 2 (4 August 2020). ↩
77. See Anjali Kaushlesh Dayal and Agathe Christien, “Women’s participation in informal peace processes”, Global Governance, vol. 26, No. 1 (2020). ↩
78. See UN-Women, “Beijing+30 Action Agenda: for all women and girls” (2025). ↩

One major obstacle to peace is the current obsession with increasing military expenditure. The world military expenditure rose to $2,718 billion in 2024, a 9.4 per cent increase from 2023.⁷⁹ More weapons do not necessarily result in more peace, however. Rather, weapons feed into war economics that survive on conflict. That is why article 7 of the Declaration on the Right to Development encourages States to promote international peace and security, including by achieving general and complete disarmament so that the resources released by effective disarmament measures can be used for comprehensive development, in particular that of developing countries. Girls and women can do more than they are currently to achieve that aspiration.

79. See https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2025-04/2504_fs_milex_2024.pdf. ↩

There is evidence that women leaders contribute to more sustainable economies. Companies led by women or with women on their board of directors enjoy higher environmental, social and governance scores.⁸⁰ 80 Women-led boards also disclose carbon dioxide emission levels at higher rates and women in parliaments ratify more environmental treaties.⁸¹ 81 Similarly, female leaders positively contribute to a better environmental performance⁸² and more detailed environmental impact reporting and disclosure.83 74 See Jana Krause, Werner Krause, and Piia Bränfors, “Women’s participation in peace negotiations and the durability of peace”, International Interactions, vol. 44, No. 6 (10 August 2018). 75 See submission from Colombia (in Spanish). 76 See Julieta Lemaitre, “Transitional justice and the challenges of a feminist peace”, International Journal of Constitutional Law, vol. 18, No. 2 (4 August 2020). 77 See Anjali Kaushlesh Dayal and Agathe Christien, “Women’s participation in informal peace processes”, Global Governance, vol. 26, No. 1 (2020). 78 See UN-Women, “Beijing+30 Action Agenda: for all women and girls” (2025). 79 See https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2025-04/2504_fs_milex_2024.pdf. 80 See https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-454-eib-survey-evidence-for-why-it-makes-sense-tosupport-female-entrepreneurs-ineurope#:~:text=Evidence%20shows%20that%20female%2Dled,but%20also%20across%20the%20w orld; https://www.ifc.org/en/insights-reports/2018/women-in-business-leadership-boost-esgperformance; and Davide Sandretto, Alessandro Rizzi and Gabriella Esposito, “Gender diversity leadership and ESG performance: the influence of women on boards and in management”, Business Strategy and the Environment, vol. 34, No. 4 (May 2025). 81 See https://www.eib.org/en/stories/gender-equality-power. 82 See Feng Wei, Binyan Ding and Yu Kong Wei, “Female directors and corporate social responsibility: evidence from the environmental investment of Chinese listed companies”, Sustainability, vol. 9, No. 12 (13 December 2017). 83 See Walid Ben-Amar, Millicent Chang and Philip McIlkenny, “Board gender diversity and corporate response to sustainability initiatives: evidence from the Carbon Disclosure Project”, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 142, No. 2 (May 2017). GE.25-11163

80. See https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-454-eib-survey-evidence-for-why-it-makes-sense-to-support-female-entrepreneurs-in-europe#:~:text=Evidence%20shows%20that%20female%2Dled,but%20also%20across%20the%20world; https://www.ifc.org/en/insights-reports/2018/women-in-business-leadership-boost-esg-performance; and Davide Sandretto, Alessandro Rizzi and Gabriella Esposito, “Gender diversity leadership and ESG performance: the influence of women on boards and in management”, Business Strategy and the Environment, vol. 34, No. 4 (May 2025). ↩
81. See https://www.eib.org/en/stories/gender-equality-power. ↩
82. See Feng Wei, Binyan Ding and Yu Kong Wei, “Female directors and corporate social responsibility: evidence from the environmental investment of Chinese listed companies”, Sustainability, vol. 9, No. 12 (13 December 2017). ↩

Girls have been at the forefront of advocacy for effective climate action. Moreover, for centuries, Indigenous women have been the guardians of nature, aiming to preserve ecological harmony. They have been passing on traditional knowledge, including on saving and selecting seeds, cultivating and harvesting, to future generations,⁸⁴ which is supporting climate change adaptation.⁸⁵ Indigenous women in Guatemala and Mexico have been leading the revitalization of the milpa system, an Indigenous method of cultivation, which has increased the fertility of the soil, enabled the production of healthier crops and bolstered food security within the Indigenous community.⁸⁶ Securing justice for the planet therefore requires girls and women to be at the centre of all economy-related decision-making, from development and agriculture to banking, finance, taxation, trade and investment.

84. See https://www.iied.org/qa-why-indigenous-seed-saving-women-are-stewards-biodiversity. ↩
85. See Jasmina Thomas and others, “Indigenous knowledge, gender and agriculture: a scoping review of gendered roles for food sustainability in Tonga, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Fiji”, Land, vol. 14, No. 6 (June 2025). ↩
86. See https://hir.harvard.edu/resilient-roots-indigenous-agriculture-and-climate-change-in-latin-america. ↩

The transition to clean cooking is another area in which women can provide critical leadership. An intersectional approach that involves women in the design and implementation of modern energy cooking programmes would contribute to the achievement of both gender equality and sustainable economies.⁸⁷

87. See submission from Modern Energy Cooking Services. ↩

The Special Rapporteur has decoded the right to development to make its various aspects accessible.⁸⁸ That human right has two dimensions (individual and collective), three elements (participation in, contribution to and enjoyment of that right), four facets (economic, social, cultural and political development) and five principles (fair distribution, intersectionality, intergenerational equity, self-determination and international cooperation).

88. See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/development/sr/decoding-right-development.pdf. ↩

One of the value additions of the right to development lies in its transformative nature, in that it requires economic and social reforms to eradicate all social injustices and establish a new international economic order rooted in equality and fairness. Therefore, States, United Nations entities, businesses, civil society organizations and other actors should use that transformative potential to address the root causes of gender inequality. Below, the Special Rapporteur discusses the ways in which five illustrative aspects of the right to development could be employed to achieve substantive gender equality: the collective dimension; active, free and meaningful participation; fair distribution; intersectionality; and international cooperation. As the figure below shows, each of those aspects is linked to various gender equality strategies. For example, gender-responsive public procurement would contribute to fair distribution and, in turn, would result in gender equality. Similarly, targeting development aid as part of international cooperation to address gender-based violence would result in gender equality by opening up social, economic and political opportunities for women and girls.

Similarly to several other human rights, the right to development has both individual and collective dimensions. This collective dimension could be especially useful for girls and women in their efforts to build solidarity and focus collectively on human rights issues unique to their needs, such as menstruation, pregnancy and breastfeeding. The Beijing Platform for Action emphasizes that women share concerns that can be addressed only by working together towards the common goal of gender equality around the world (para. 3).

Collective advocacy by women and their organizations can be an especially powerful tool for reforming discriminatory laws and policies, patriarchal norms, social stereotypes and cultural values. Similarly, women’s organizations can represent the collective interests of girls and women in such forums as meetings of international or multilateral organizations or in due diligence and impact assessment processes conducted by States and companies.

Women’s organizations can also provide accessible and gender-responsive support to girls and women in response to gender-based violence. For example, Azerbaijan reports that it enacted a law on the prevention of domestic violence in 2010, has maintained a gender-based violence hotline since 2020 and is working on a new national action plan to tackle domestic violence.⁸⁹ The Plurinational State of Bolivia reports that it has reinforced the guarantee to women of a life free from violence through prevention programmes at the national level and through the construction of welcome houses (refuges) and transitory 89 See submission from Azerbaijan. Collective dimension
• Addressing the unique needs of girls and women
• Conducting advocacy
• Representing the interests of girls and women at multilateral meetings Participation
• Introducing legal reforms
• Combating gender bias
• Ensuring genderresponsive impact assessments Fair distribution
• Ensuring parity in land ownership and access to finance
• Introducing gender-responsive public procurement, trade and investment
• Advocating for the equal sharing of domestic and care work Intersectionality
• Responding to multiple and intersecting discrimination
• Collecting intersectional data
• Analysing the intersectional impacts of decisions and events International cooperation
• Harnessing development aid to combat gender-based discrimination
• Ensuring access to technologies
• Building capacity and providing technical assistance Right to development Gender equality GE.25-11163 shelters for women and their children at the local level.⁹⁰ Benin reports that it created the National Institute of Women in 2021 to promote women’s rights and fight against discrimination and gender-based violence.⁹¹ Burundi reports that it has established special chambers in courts for all forms of violence against women to ensure a sensitive approach.⁹²

89. See submission from Azerbaijan. ↩
90. See submission from the Plurinational State of Bolivia (in Spanish). ↩
91. See submission from Benin (in French). ↩
92. See submission from Burundi (in French). ↩

Active, free and meaningful participation in decision-making is a key element of the right to development. The participation of girls and women in all institutions at every level can be a powerful antidote to the discrimination, exclusion and violence to which they are subjected in both the private and public spheres. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in its general recommendation No. 40 (2024) on the equal and inclusive representation of women in decision-making systems, provides a justification for why and a road map for how to achieve the equal representation of women. Girls and women do not require boys and men to empower them. Rather, they need opportunities and an enabling environment to participate in decision-making processes and institutions so that they can empower themselves.

The equal representation of women at the legislative and executive levels would accelerate the repeal or amending by States of laws that discriminate against women. Azerbaijan, Jordan, Malaysia, Oman, Sierra Leone and Uzbekistan, for example, have mandated equal pay for work of equal value or lifted restrictions on women’s ability to work in industrial or dangerous jobs. Cyprus, Malaysia, Oman, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Slovakia and Togo have expanded maternity and paternity leave or prohibited the dismissal of pregnant women from the workplace. Armenia, Equatorial Guinea, Jordan, the Republic of Moldova and Suriname have enacted all together eight reforms prohibiting sexual harassment in the workplace.⁹³ Saudi Arabia reports that it issued a royal decree in 2017 providing that no entity could require a woman to obtain a guardian’s approval to have access to services or to complete any administrative procedure.⁹⁴ Other States should follow the examples above. It is also critical that legislation prohibiting discrimination cover both the private and public sectors.⁹⁵

93. World Bank, Women, Business and the Law 2024, p. xiv. ↩
94. See submission from Saudi Arabia. ↩
95. See submission from Projekta Suriname. ↩

Women are underrepresented in decision-making in the economic governance architecture, multilateral financial institutions, debt servicing systems, capital markets, the industrial infrastructure architecture, trade negotiations and public procurement regimes.⁹⁶ That must change. For example, Mexico has conducted inclusive consultations on tailoring the implementation of the 2030 Agenda to the national context.⁹⁷

96. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 40 (2024), para. 7. ↩
97. See submission from Center for Economic and Social Rights. ↩

The participation of girls and women from diverse backgrounds in the design of artificial intelligence systems should help to address gender bias in such systems. Girls and women should also be part of delegations negotiating multilateral agreements and participating in regional and international events organized by United Nations entities. A lack of female representation in decision-making structures results in inadequate healthcare policies and the persistent deprioritizing of sexual and reproductive health and rights.⁹⁸

98. See joint submission from Center for Reproductive Rights, International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association and International Planned Parenthood Federation. ↩

Girls and women face numerous barriers to participation in decision-making. Women of African descent and Roma, Haratin, burakumin, Dalit, migrant, displaced, Indigenous, ethnic and rural women face additional barriers to participation. Women are also affected significantly by development displacement and often receive no compensation due to their 90 See submission from the Plurinational State of Bolivia (in Spanish). 91 See submission from Benin (in French). 92 See submission from Burundi (in French). 93 World Bank, Women, Business and the Law 2024, p. xiv. 94 See submission from Saudi Arabia. 95 See submission from Projekta Suriname. 96 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 40 (2024), para. 7. 97 See submission from Center for Economic and Social Rights. 98 See joint submission from Center for Reproductive Rights, International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association and International Planned Parenthood Federation. GE.25-11163 non-ownership of land. Domestic workers, the majority of whom are women, are another group often excluded from participation due to their invisible and undervalued status.⁹⁹ An additional barrier to the participation of women is the growing use of strategic litigation against public participation to silence and intimidate women human rights defenders.¹⁰⁰

99. See submission from Migrant Forum in Asia. ↩
100. See submission from Manushya Foundation. ↩

To ensure the active, free and meaningful participation of girls and women, States, United Nations entities, companies and other actors need to take targeted steps to remove barriers and obstacles. For example, India reports that it has developed the Sexual Harassment Electronic Box (SHe-Box) platform for women, including those working in the informal sector, to lodge complaints about workplace sexual harassment.¹⁰¹

101. See submission from India. ↩

The fair distribution of economic development benefits is an important principle of the right to development. By adhering to that principle, States and other actors could address the economic exclusion and marginalization of women. Gender-responsive land reforms are also critical in that context. Brazil reports that it has promoted land regularization with a focus on peasants, Quilombola and Indigenous women, ensuring female ownership in agrarian reform programmes and rural settlements.¹⁰² Morocco reports that it strengthened women’s access to and control of agricultural land through the adoption of a relevant law in 2018.¹⁰³

102. See submission from Brazil. ↩
103. See submission from Morocco (in French). ↩

States should leverage public procurement processes to achieve the fair distribution of government contracts. For now, this tool is underused, as fewer than one in five economies mandate gender-sensitive criteria for public procurement processes.¹⁰⁴ Uganda enacted guidelines in 2024 to reserve a portion of public contracts for women.¹⁰⁵ Similarly, India reports that at least 3 per cent of public procurement is reserved for women-owned micro- and small enterprises.¹⁰⁶

104. World Bank, Women, Business and the Law 2024, p. xv. ↩
105. See submission from Disability People’s Forum. ↩
106. See submission from India. ↩

Companies should also develop and implement policies mandating a certain percentage of sourcing from women-only micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises. Similarly, micro credit schemes for women, many of whom might not have the collateral to secure loans, to start new businesses would go a long way towards making the economy work for all.

The principle of fair distribution is a dynamic one that should be applied beyond the typical economic aspects to achieve gender equality. For example, the burden of unpaid domestic and care work should be distributed fairly among men and women. States and development partners should also allocate a fair share of financial resources to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women. By the same logic, digital health technologies, which can improve women’s access to health information and services, should be accessible to women and girls.¹⁰⁷ El Salvador reports that has been expanding women’s access to technology and that its National Digital Agenda 2020–2030 includes a focus on gender equality in the budgeting and financing of technology projects.¹⁰⁸

107. See submission from WHO. ↩
108. See submission from El Salvador (in Spanish). ↩

Limited access to finance is another obstacle for women. Banks and financial institutions should develop policies to ensure fair access to loans. A related issue is the unsustainable levels of debt faced by developing countries, which force them to take austerity measures and cut spending on public services, disproportionately affecting girls and women. Addressing that situation will require transformative changes to the neoliberal economic 99 See submission from Migrant Forum in Asia. 100 See submission from Manushya Foundation. 101 See submission from India. 102 See submission from Brazil. 103 See submission from Morocco (in French). 104 World Bank, Women, Business and the Law 2024, p. xv. 105 See submission from Disability People’s Forum. 106 See submission from India. 107 See submission from WHO. 108 See submission from El Salvador (in Spanish). GE.25-11163 order, including the introduction of progressive taxation, debt cancellation and the recognition of care as public good.¹⁰⁹ Moreover, official development assistance, climate finance and humanitarian aid should be gender responsive.

109. See joint submission from Association for Women’s Rights in Development, Sexual Rights Initiative, International Women’s Rights Action Watch Asia Pacific and Feminist Diplomacy Lab. ↩

Trade and investment agreements are not neutral in terms of the economic opportunities that they generate and for whom, nor are they neutral in relation to their impact on human rights, including of girls and women. States should therefore conduct gender-responsive impact assessments before negotiating investment agreements, which should include explicit provisions to mitigate adverse impacts on girls and women and to promote the economic empowerment of women¹¹⁰ to ensure that the benefits of trade and investment agreements are distributed more fairly.

110. See submissions from Susan Engel and Annabel Dulhunty and Pushkar Anand and Varsha Singh. ↩

No one should be discriminated against on any ground in efforts to realize the right to development. As many individuals and groups experience multiple and intersecting forms of discriminations, however, an intersectional approach must be adopted by States and other actors in order to leave no one behind.

Women and girls are not a homogeneous group. Due to intersecting and multiple forms of discrimination, they may face barriers to gender equality because of race, colour, caste, age, language, ethnicity, culture, religion, disability, family status, sexual orientation, gender identity, socioeconomic status, minority, Indigenous, migrant or refugee status or residence in a rural location. Dalit women, for example, face the triple burden of gender, caste and economic oppression.¹¹¹ Unless such multilayered discrimination is recognized and intersectional data are collected, States and businesses will not be able to respond to the intersectional discrimination faced by girls and women.

111. See submission from International Dalit Solidarity Network. ↩

An intersectional approach should be adopted to address gender inequality and to examine the impacts of decisions or circumstances, including austerity measures, climate change, conflict, debt, development aid, taxation and trade.

International cooperation is another vital principle of the right to development. Effective international cooperation – North-South, South-South, triangular and bilateral – is essential to provide developing countries with appropriate means and facilities to realize the right to development of their populations. Cooperation in the form of development aid, technology transfer, capacity-building and technical assistance is critical to promoting gender equality.

More development aid should be channelled to combat all aspects of gender-based discrimination and achieve substantive gender equality. In that context, Spain reports that the Ellas+ Programme, an initiative of the Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation, supports countries around the world to adopt and strengthen policies and laws to promote gender equality, including in political life.¹¹² International aid could also support the building of gender-responsive social protection systems, which would protect girls and women from the poverty trap throughout their lives and strengthen their resilience to shocks.¹¹³

112. See https://capacity4dev.europa.eu/groups/public-gender/info/ellas-fund-promoting-womens-political-empowerment-around-world_en. ↩
113. See Silke Staab and others, Harnessing Social Protection for Gender Equality, Resilience and Transformation: World Survey on the Role of Women in Development 2024 (New York, UN-Women, 2024). ↩

Technical assistance and technology transfer are equally critical. States, such as Mexico,¹¹⁴ practising a feminist foreign policy should share good practices with other States to mainstream that approach. Women farmers in developing countries should be supported to undertake carbon farming. Introducing suitable financial instruments would help Indigenous farmers, including women, to benefit from carbon credits. Women in developing countries would also benefit from access to technologies and finance to transition to clean cooking.

114. See submission from Mexico (in Spanish). ↩

States should refrain from using blanket unilateral sanctions. Apart from being problematic on account of their political selectivity and damaging to multilateralism, unilateral sanctions disproportionately affect girls and women and thus undermine gender equality.¹¹⁵

115. See E/CN.6/2025/NGO/33. ↩

Gender equality is more than a human right. It is a pathway to realizing all other human rights and sustainable development. The same can be said about the right to development in that it also provides a pathway to realizing all human rights and fundamental freedoms. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur has described the mutually reinforcing role of those two pathways in the realization of human rights.

The key message is simple. Without the achievement of gender equality, the right to development of every human being cannot be realized. Conversely, realizing the right to development, including of women and girls, will contribute significantly to achieving substantive gender equality. Therefore, States, international organizations, policymakers, businesses and other actors should pay attention to the mutually reinforcing nexus between gender equality and the right to development.

Girls and women should not be seen as recipients of empowerment by others. If enabling conditions are created, girls and women can be powerful agents for inclusive growth, a peaceful world and sustainable economies. Various aspects of the right to development can create enabling conditions for girls and women to become change-makers. In the report, the Special Rapporteur has provided some illustrative examples of such enabling conditions and corresponding strategies that States and other actors can use to contribute to achieving substantive gender equality.

The Special Rapporteur recommends that States:
(a) Take suitable legal and policy measures to eliminate all forms of intersectional discrimination against girls and women in all spheres and to strengthen the implementation of existing regulations;
(b) Adopt ambitious steps, including temporary special measures, to achieve the equal representation of women in both public and private institutions;
(c) Adopt a zero-tolerance policy towards gender-based harassment and violence in private, public and online spaces;
(d) Take effective measures to safeguard the sexual and reproductive health and rights of girls and women, including access to relevant services;
(e) Ensure the economic independence of women, including through access to employment, land, finance and digital technologies;
(f) Consider gender equality to be relevant in relation not only to Sustainable Development Goal 5 but to all of the Goals and all human rights;
(g) Adopt gender-responsive budgeting and allocate the maximum possible resources to achieve substantive gender equality and to realize the right to development of women and girls, especially those from disadvantaged or marginalized groups;
(h) Use public procurement and trade and investment agreements to achieve gender equality;
(i) Recognize unpaid domestic and care work as part of gross domestic product and take measures to share fairly the burden of such work between men and women;
(j) Treat girls and women as agents of change aiming towards an inclusive, peaceful and sustainable world;
(k) Strengthen institutions to prevent violations of the human rights of women and girls during armed conflicts and wars and to hold accountable the actors responsible for such violations;
(l) Ensure the active, free and meaningful participation of women and girls and organizations working on gender equality in all decisions and policymaking, including those concerning the right to development, the Sustainable Development Goals, annual budgets, climate change, conflict, new technologies, trade and investment agreements and public debt;
(m) Include girls and women from diverse backgrounds in government delegations involved in multilateral negotiations on various human rights, environmental and climate issues and in regional and international forums relating to those issues or the Sustainable Development Goals;
(n) Adopt robust laws and policies to ensure that girl activists and women human rights and environmental defenders do not face threats, bullying or intimidation;
(o) Establish gender-responsive remedial mechanisms to deal with gender-based violence;
(p) Harness the power of international cooperation and development aid to achieve substantive gender equality.

The Special Rapporteur recommends that all United Nations entities and other multilateral institutions achieve gender parity in leadership positions. They should also take specific steps to ensure the meaningful participation of girls and women in all of their meetings, events and negotiations.

The Special Rapporteur recommends that multilateral development banks provide grants to developing countries to promote gender equality and consider the gendered impacts of loans, debt restructuring and austerity measures.

The Special Rapporteur recommends that businesses:
(a) Ensure equal pay for women for work of equal value and a minimum of 18 weeks of paid maternity leave and offer women flexible work opportunities in view of their childcare responsibilities;
(b) Pay a living wage to their employees to ensure the fair distribution of economic benefits;
(c) Take steps to ensure an equal number of women as men on their boards and in other executive positions;
(d) Put in place effective policies and mechanisms to eliminate harassment and violence against girls and women in the workplace;
(e) Conduct gender-responsive human rights due diligence and impact assessments in meaningful consultation with women and girls and women’s organizations;
(f) Ensure the active, free and meaningful participation of women and girls in the development of new technologies and artificial intelligence systems;
(g) Avoid gender stereotyping and the objectification of women and girls in the media, including social media, and advertising and take measures to protect women and girls from online bullying and harassment;
(h) Establish gender-responsive grievance mechanisms to handle complaints concerning violations of the human rights of women and girls.

The Special Rapporteur recommends that trade unions, civil society organizations and universities take steps to combat all forms of gender-based discrimination and to achieve gender parity in leadership positions.