GR30 Addendum: Women in conflict prevention/post-conflict — Women, Peace and Security

The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women is marking the twenty-fifth anniversary of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) by updating its general recommendation No. 30 (2013) on women in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations. In the present addendum, the Committee reaffirms the preamble to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, wherein it is stated that “the strengthening of international peace and security” and “the affirmation of the principles of justice, equality and mutual benefit in relations among countries… will promote social progress and development and as a consequence will contribute to the attainment of full equality between men and women”. It builds on the principles set out in general recommendation No. 30 relating to the participation of women in conflict prevention, peacebuilding, post-conflict reconstruction and access to justice and decision-making in disarmament, demobilization and reintegration processes. The primary aim of the addendum is to provide authoritative guidance, in full compliance with the Convention, to States Parties and non-State actors and to guarantee that gender considerations are integrated in the implementation of policies and programmes related to peace and security, in accordance with Security Council resolution 2242 (2015).

Much has evolved since the adoption of general recommendation No. 30, including the changing nature of conflict, the weaponization of technology, shifts in the global political economy, a new arms race, growing climate emergencies, and rapidly shrinking civic spaces for women and the reversal of their rights. The present addendum will serve to guide the application of general recommendation No. 30 in this shifting locus, in line with the Secretary-General’s New Agenda for Peace. It does not create new international or domestic legal obligations but reinvigorates general recommendation No. 30, emphasizing existing obligations under international humanitarian law, international human rights law, criminal law, refugee law, cross-cutting resolutions of the Security Council and the corpus of relevant norms, including the Committee’s own jurisprudence, general recommendations and concluding observations.

The present addendum serves to reiterate that these norms should work in parallel, ensuring the complementarity of the rights-based approach of the Convention with Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) and the full constellation of the women and peace and security agenda, emphasizing the vital role of women in peacebuilding within a non-discriminatory, intersectional framework. The Committee, in partnership with United Nations entities and multilateral organizations, seeks to guide the integration of the present addendum into national action plans and domestic and regional policies and programmes, and recommends the allocation of gender-responsive humanitarian and financial resources in the prevention and resolution of conflict.

The present addendum elaborates on the expansive coverage in general recommendation No. 30 of armed and non-armed conflict, “situations of concern” that are of “particular concern to the Committee”, including “internal disturbances, protracted and low-intensity civil strife, political strife, ethnic and communal violence, states of emergency and suppression of mass uprisings, war against terrorism and organized crime, which may not necessarily be classified as armed conflict under international humanitarian law and which result in serious violations of women’s rights”. It also further develops the ideas set out in general recommendation No. 40 (2024) on the equal and inclusive representation of women in decision-making systems, in which the Committee underscores “the increasingly complex and changing nature of conflict, emerging security threats caused by new technologies, including cyberattacks and artificial intelligence-driven lethal autonomous weapon systems, which may also exacerbate existing power imbalances and biases, a climate emergency, pandemics, the increasing exploration of outer space and various shifts in the geopolitical landscape”, creating an “urgent need for the expansion of the women and peace and security agenda to address newly emerging threats, including those going beyond armed conflict prevention”. In the present addendum, the Committee also underscores the cross-cutting nature of the “impacts of climate change and the global nature of health pandemics” (see Security Council resolution 2242 (2015)).

In the present addendum, the Committee reiterates its recommendation in general recommendation No. 30 that States Parties “apply the Convention and other international human rights instruments and humanitarian law comprehensively in the exercise of territorial or extraterritorial jurisdiction” and “fulfil the rights guaranteed by the Convention”, which applies both territorially and extraterritorially, including in “situations of foreign occupation”.

Over the past 25 years, the conceptualization of conflict-related sexual violence under international law has deepened significantly, from historically stereotype-based definitions of protection to broader, survivor-informed understandings. Despite progress, implementation gaps remain in existing women and peace and security frameworks, as seen in continuing impunity for conflict-related sexual violence and the exclusion of women from legal remedies or reparations regimes, including structural reparations. A commitment to transformative reparations is critical to gender-sensitive post-conflict processes that guarantee non-repetition. Reparative justice attempts to address restitutive and restorative justice and the structures that spark conflict. In addition, there must be increased attention to the varied forms of gender-based violence in conflict beyond conflict-related sexual violence, such as gender persecution and reproductive violence. The Committee’s growing jurisprudence and its concluding observations reflect this shift. Today, many forms of gender-based violence – physical, moral and psychological – are recognized in international criminal law, illuminated by survivors’ experiences.

While in its resolution 2467 (2019), the Security Council “urges existing sanctions committees… to apply targeted sanctions against those who perpetrate and direct sexual violence in conflict”, in the present addendum, the Committee emphasizes the profound gender-specific humanitarian impact of unilateral coercive measures. In the guiding principles on sanctions, business and human rights, the Special Rapporteur on the negative impact of unilateral coercive measures on the enjoyment of human rights made clear that States, international bodies and businesses must uphold human rights in all sanctions regimes. Any response must comply with the limitations laid out in the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, and sanctions committees must “have the necessary gender expertise” (see Security Council resolution 2242 (2015)).

In the present addendum, while emphasizing efforts to combat impunity, the Committee seeks to move beyond framing physical violence as women’s primary experience of conflict and to recognize women as change agents in conflict prevention and participants in peace. It reinforces the shift in the women and peace and security agenda away from reductive narratives of victimhood, which obscure women’s leadership in peacebuilding and justice mechanisms, as envisioned by the pillars of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) on participation, conflict prevention and peacebuilding. Moreover, in general recommendation No. 40, the Committee redefines “equal and inclusive representation” as full parity in both access to and power within decision-making, especially in sustainable peace. To date, 16 States – in both the North and the South – have adopted a new feminist foreign policy, reflecting an aspiration to decolonize historically unequal power structures while advancing the women and peace and security agenda. Pursuant to the vision outlined in general recommendation No. 40, the Committee recommends that States Parties “reframe national action plans on women and peace and security with parity as a fundamental principle, ensuring that they incorporate a feminist domestic and foreign policy”.

In the present addendum, the Committee envisions responses from new stakeholders, including the private sector, linked to general recommendation No. 40, to cover shifting conflict landscapes, a new global economic order and changes in global power dynamics. Artificial intelligence (AI), which is evolving rapidly, can make conflict more lethal: AI-enabled cyberattacks can destroy networks, and AI-driven decision-making can transform warfare, weapons and tactics. Meanwhile, the widening digital gender divide excludes women from decision-making and addressing the gendered impacts of AI in conflict.

Moreover, with the risks posed by cybercrime, cyberspace is a new battlefield. AI can be leveraged for cyberscams, disinformation and online harassment of women and girls, with a potential chilling effect on the participation of women in conflict prevention and peacebuilding.

At the same time, multilateral disarmament and non-proliferation tools – both treaty-based and voluntary – remain vital. In the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, the States represented at the Fourth World Conference on Women accentuated the immediate need for negotiations on nuclear disarmament and “the leading role that women have played in the peace movement”, urging Governments to “support negotiations on the conclusion, without delay, of a universal and multilaterally and effectively verifiable comprehensive nuclear-test-ban treaty that contributes to nuclear disarmament and the prevention of the proliferation of nuclear weapons in all its aspects”. In resolution 1325 (2000), the Security Council highlighted the importance of gender-sensitive disarmament, and in resolution 1820 (2008), the Council called for the inclusion of women in peace and security frameworks. The Committee, in its concluding observations, and the General Assembly, in its resolution 79/57 of 2 December 2024 on women, disarmament, non-proliferation and arms control, call for the full, equal and meaningful participation of women in efforts to prevent, combat and eradicate the illicit transfer of small arms while recognizing women as key players in arms control.

New and continuing security threats, including “occupation and other forms of administration of foreign territory” and “lawful or unlawful military actions” (see general recommendation No. 30), highlight the urgency of bringing gender framing to a changing global order. The present addendum offers forward-looking guidance to States Parties, non-State actors and multilateral organizations to confront security threats through an intersectional lens rooted in the bedrock of the rule of law and the Charter of the United Nations. In the sections below, the Committee elaborates how the principles of the women and peace and security agenda, together with enhanced resources, can be applied and implemented in continuing and emerging spheres of concern.

In accordance with general recommendation No. 40, States should recognize “the essential character of parity in all sectors as a prerequisite for peace and security”. The Security Council has noted “the lack of adequate gender-sensitive humanitarian responses and support for women’s leadership roles in these settings, insufficient financing for women, peace and security, and the resulting detrimental impact on the maintenance of international peace and security” (see resolutions 2242 (2015), 2467 (2019) and 2493 (2019)). Progress in achieving women’s leadership in peace processes remains slow. According to a report of the Secretary-General, in 2023, women comprised only 9.6% of negotiators (S/2024/671, para. 22). The Committee underscores that, under the New Agenda for Peace, it is recommended that 1% of official development assistance be allocated to women-led groups in conflict zones.

States should position women’s engagement at all levels of decision-making as integral to the full realization of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000). In resolution 2493 (2019) and other resolutions on women and peace and security, the Council urges States to include women at every peacebuilding stage – from negotiations to reconstruction, elections to judicial reform. Similarly, in general recommendation No. 40, the Committee recommends that women’s leadership be strengthened across the peacebuilding life cycle. As apposite, in paragraph 59 of general recommendation No. 40, the Committee draws attention to the participation of women in decision-making with respect to the architecture of “the increasing exploration of outer space and various shifts in the geopolitical landscape”. The participation of women in the peaceful exploration of outer space, under the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, will strengthen outer space as a global common, free from all forms of discrimination. A looming threat is the spectre of the militarization of space. While bans on nuclear weapons testing and the deployment of weapons of mass destruction in outer space must be maintained, the participation of women in satellite de-orbiting, debris mitigation and responsible space craft disposal is pivotal to peaceful space exploration and reconnaissance, and is key to the pursuit of the sustainable use of space.

In line with Security Council resolution 2467 (2019), in which the Council reinforces the importance of survivor-centric justice, States are encouraged to prioritize survivor needs, voluntary consent and post-conflict care. It promotes survivor-led approaches, institutional resources, including survivor funds, and integration or resettlement assistance for displaced persons. Crucially, it also promotes the lifting of sociocultural stigma regarding gender-based violence in conflict.

In accordance with Security Council resolution 2617 (2021), States should collect and preserve evidence for prosecution purposes. In its resolution 2467 (2019), the Council emphasizes trauma-informed justice processes, information integrity, data privacy and safeguarding the rights of those vulnerable to evidence leakage. Under article 68 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, appropriate measures should be taken “to protect the safety, physical and psychological well-being, dignity and privacy of victims and witnesses”. Integral to survivor-centric justice are comprehensive witness protection schemes, which ensure witness safety and mental health services in order to avoid victim and witness retraumatization before, during and after legal proceedings. States should encourage trauma-informed justice processes for collecting evidence, obtaining safe testimonies based on new forensic protocols and bolstering the participation of survivors and their communities.

In its resolution 76/304 of 2 September 2022, entitled “International cooperation for access to justice, remedies and assistance for survivors of sexual violence”, the General Assembly reiterates the importance of justice systems rooted in survivor-centred principles: dignity, access to care, protection from stigma and retaliation, and meaningful inclusion of survivors in justice processes. In its Policy on Gender-based Crimes of 2023,² the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court highlights intersectional justice, emphasizing dignity and respect, and affirms a survivor-centred approach to investigation and prosecution. Similarly, in its Policy on the Crime of Gender Persecution,³ with a view to obtaining full accountability for those directly affected by gender-based persecution, it stresses the importance of collaboration with civil society and observes that “networks are crucial for effective investigations”.

2. Available at www.icc-cpi.int/news/policy-gender-based-crimes. ↩
3. Available at www.icc-cpi.int/news/policy-crime-gender-persecution. ↩

In the Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Fourth Geneva Convention), emphasis is placed on protecting women against attacks on their “honour”, in particular against rape – language reflecting a historically stereotypical understanding that links women’s bodies and sexuality to the honour of their families and communities. To shift the shame and combat stigmatization, in line with Security Council resolution 2467 (2019), national and local leaders are encouraged to play a more active role in community advocacy. In its resolution 76/304 on international cooperation for access to justice, remedies and assistance for survivors of sexual violence, the General Assembly recognizes the contributions of “women’s, young women’s, girls’, youth-led, grass-roots and community-based organizations, rural, Indigenous and feminist groups, women human rights defenders, women journalists and media professionals and trade unions” in strengthening access to justice.

In Security Council resolution 2242 (2015) and in General Assembly resolution 79/152 of 17 December 2024, entitled “Intensification of efforts to prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls: the digital environment”, the policy of zero tolerance for sexual exploitation is reaffirmed. Zero-tolerance policies and safeguards against retaliation and intimidation are determinants of witness and survivor participation in justice processes, which should centre survivors as chief protagonists in accountability efforts.

In his first thematic report on conflict-related sexual violence, the Secretary-General defined “conflict-related sexual violence” as “sexual violence occurring in a conflict or post-conflict setting that has a direct or indirect causal link with the conflict itself” and warned that such violence may be deployed as a method of terror, intimidation, ethnic cleansing or gender-based abuse (see S/2010/604). In his report of 2023 on the same topic, the Secretary-General reaffirmed the importance of adopting a survivor-centred approach, putting an end to impunity, prosecuting the perpetrators of sexual and gender-based crimes with survivors’ informed consent, and providing specialized services for survivors (see S/2023/413).

The Committee recalls the seminal Akayesu case,⁴ in which rape was recognized as a constituent act of genocide; the Ntaganda case,⁵ in which sexual slavery was recognized as a war crime; and the Ongwen case,⁶ in which forced pregnancy was recognized as a crime against humanity. While not all States Parties to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women are Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, in general recommendation No. 30, the Committee refers to the Rome Statute as it is the primary treaty outlining the most serious crimes of concern to the international community – those that threaten the peace, security and well-being of the world. The present addendum is anchored in the recognition in general recommendation No. 30 that, “under the Convention, States Parties’ obligations to prevent…gender-based violence are reinforced by international criminal law, including…the Rome Statute, pursuant to which … rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity may constitute a war crime, a crime against humanity or an act of torture, or constitute an act of genocide”.

4. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, The Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment, 2 September 1998. ↩
5. International Criminal Court, The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Case No. ICC-01/04-02/06, Judgment, 8 July 2019. ↩
6. International Criminal Court, The Prosecutor v. Dominic Ongwen, Case No. ICC-02/04-01/15, Judgment, 4 February 2021. ↩

The inclusion in the Rome Statute of “any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity” opens the door to previously unrecognized forms of violence (art. 7 (1) (g)). International criminal law, including definitions of gender-based violence and, in particular, sexual violence, must be interpreted in a manner that is consistent with the Convention and other internationally recognized human rights instruments. In general recommendation No. 35 (2017) on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19, the Committee notes that the Rome Statute, Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) “and subsequent resolutions on women and peace and security, as well as many resolutions of the Human Rights Council, including resolution 32/19 of 1 July 2016, contain specific provisions on gender-based violence against women”. States should reinforce the call in Security Council resolution 1820 (2008) for “the categorical prohibition of all forms of sexual violence against civilians” and place “primary responsibility” for protecting civilians on the parties to the conflict.

In its resolution 2467 (2019), the Security Council demanded the complete cessation of sexual violence in conflict. While noting that such violence disproportionately affects women and girls, it recognized that men and boy are also targets of sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict settings. It urged States to end impunity for conflict-related sexual violence through access to justice, including reparations, and encouraged national, community and religious leaders to “play a more active role in advocating within communities against sexual violence in conflict”. In his guidance note on reparations for conflict-related sexual violence,⁷ the Secretary-General recognized the need for gender-sensitive remedies for conflict-related sexual violence. In its resolution 2467 (2019), the Council expressly reaffirmed the obligations of parties to conflict under the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and the Additional Protocols thereto and alerted States of their responsibility in ensuring accountability for sexual and gender-based crimes under the Rome Statute.

7. Available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/814902?ln=en&v=pdf. ↩

According to the definitions contained in the Policy on Gender-based Crimes, gynaecologic fistula, vaginal bleeding, permanent damage to one’s reproductive system, miscarriage, physical harm due to pregnancy and childbearing, health complications during childbirth, somatic complaints and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV and AIDS, are examples of the consequences of sexual and gender-based crimes. Moreover, the rights of children born out of forced marriage, forced pregnancy, rape and sexual slavery are to be protected, and due consideration is to be paid to mothers of children born of rape, who bear the weight of caregiving.

In the Policy on the Crime of Gender Persecution, it is emphasized that gender persecution “may, and frequently does, intersect with and constitute multiple forms of persecution based on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious or other grounds”. Similar to Security Council resolution 2467 (2019), in the Policy, sexual and gender-based violence are described as among the gravest crimes in the Rome Statute. The Policy contains guidance for States investigating and prosecuting these crimes, noting that they should be a “key priority” and that cultural relativism cannot be a shield against gender-based crimes: “breaches of fundamental rights cannot be ignored, dismissed or justified on the basis of culture”. The Committee alerts States to increased rates of child marriage and sex trafficking in conflict-affected countries and recommends that they take urgent action to prevent these crimes.

Conflict-related sexual violence is not isolated or episodic, but a continuum of the structural inequalities of violence against women, including economic violence, such as unequal access to property, land confiscation and land-grabbing. Post-conflict debt restructuring and structural adjustment should ensure decision-making abilities for women and address the gendered impact of monetary policies. Peace agreements should include the reallocation of land and land titling for women refugees and internally displaced women. Land rights include the use of rare earth minerals for the benefit of women in the rural community. The economic rights of women, especially of minority and Indigenous women, are key to the recovery and sustainability of peace. As highlighted in the Policy on the Crime of Gender Persecution, “examining rape and other forms of sexual or non-sexual violence in isolation may lead to missing relevant facts or patterns demonstrating their commission as a form of persecution”.

In her report of 2024, the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment asserts that “sexual assaults committed by warring parties are almost always torture” (A/79/181, para. 21). The substantial list therein of sexually violent actions that constitute cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment includes “forced nudity, verbal abuse and threats of a sexual nature, forced masturbation or urination, physical trauma, electrocuting, mutilating or targeting of genitalia, reproductive organs or breasts, rape (involving digital, object or penile penetration), enslavement, mock or real castrations and forced abortions, pregnancies or sterilizations” (ibid., para. 22). The International Committee of the Red Cross affirms that, “sexual violence can be used as a form of reprisal, to create fear, or as a form of torture… Rape would typically constitute torture, for instance, when it is intentionally inflicted by a State official in order to obtain confessions from the victim”.⁸

8. See www.icrc.org/en/document/sexual-violence-armed-conflict-questions-and-answers. ↩

According to the Policy on Gender-based Crimes, torture can “be committed by way of acts of sexual, reproductive and other gender-based violence if they cause the victim(s) in the perpetrator’s custody and/or control severe pain and suffering”. The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment provides an unqualified right for victims to access rehabilitation and compensation.

The right to remedy and reparations for victims of gross human rights violations is enshrined in international law. The Hague Convention respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land of 1907 (art. 3) and the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I) (art. 91) uphold State responsibility for remedying serious violations of international humanitarian law. Furthermore, parties to conflict that violate Protocol I “shall, if the case demands, be liable to pay compensation”. In its resolution 2467 (2019), the Security Council emphasizes survivor-centred justice, while in general recommendation No. 30, the Committee frames redress through the potential for “transformative change in women’s lives”.

Reparations may take the form of restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction or guarantees of non-repetition and may be awarded individually or in combination. Under article 34 of the articles on responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, reparations are identified as duties distinct from criminal punishment. Guarantees of non-repetition include public apologies, official acknowledgement of facts, memorialization, commemoration of victims and integration of human rights into pedagogy.

The Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law inform understanding of State responsibility in relation to post-conflict delivery of justice to victims, including effective access to justice and effective remedies to victims, including reparation. Gender-appropriate legal processes should avoid retraumatization and accommodate the needs of women facing intersecting forms of discrimination to ensure the provision of inclusive, effective remedies. States should reinforce the justice and reparations nexus set out in Security Council resolution 1888 (2009), while taking note that, in resolution 2106 (2013), the Council urges support for survivors and, in resolutions 1820 (2008), 1888 (2009), 1889 (2009), 1960 (2010) and 2122 (2013), it underscores legal assistance, responsiveness to victims and judicial capacity. Both restitutive and restorative justice are survivor-centred.

The reparations order of the International Criminal Court in the case of The Prosecutor v. Dominic Ongwen provides persuasive authority, refining the reparations framework to incorporate an intersectional approach and uphold dignity, nondiscrimination and protection, especially for children born of sexual violence. In addition to physical, moral, material and community harms, in the order, the Court recognized psychological trauma and disruptions to victims’ life trajectories as moral harms. The Court emphasized the principle that reparations must “do no harm” to avoid retraumatization. Weakening of the social fabric – the loss of rituals, customs and culture – is acknowledged as reparable harm and includes collective community-based rehabilitation, educational and stigma-combating programming, and trauma care.

The shift from victimhood to agency in access to justice is a major focus of the Committee and should animate international and domestic justice systems. The Committee views access to justice, victim protection and rights to remedy as part of the architecture of non-recurrence.

The preservation of historical memory and the narratives of victims, survivors and witnesses in reconciliation processes are integral to the non-recurrence of conflict. Memorials are often built in the image of men, obscuring the role of women in peacebuilding and the lives of women affected by war. States should address the invisibility of women in public commemoration and advance gender parity in historical memory preservation. Memorialization processes are an expression of reparations and should include feminist narratives, pedagogy and a transformative architecture of tangible and intangible forms of memorialization to signify “never again” to violence.

United Nations peacekeepers are mandated to protect civilian populations within their capabilities and areas of deployment in a country, thereby strengthening local government capacities to protect. This mandate is significantly undermined by the complicity of peacekeepers in abuses against local women and girls, which constitute violations of international humanitarian law and international human rights law. If allegations arise, under its resolution 2272 (2016), the Security Council calls for the replacement of all military units and/or formed police units in United Nations peacekeeping operations if they are from a different country than that of the operation and if the police- or troop-contributing country fails to take appropriate steps to investigate or hold perpetrators accountable.

The “inherently unequal power dynamics” between United Nations staff and beneficiaries of assistance are underscored in the Secretary-General’s bulletin on special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and abuse (ST/SGB/2003/13), which prohibits exchanging money, employment, goods or services for sex between United Nations staff and beneficiaries of assistance.

The Zeid Report (A/59/710) contained recommendations to the Secretary-General on the collective responsibility for preventing sexual exploitation by peacekeeping personnel and the primary responsibility of troop-contributing countries in that regard. In line with the zero-tolerance policy under Security Council resolution 2242 (2015) – which extends to humanitarian aid workers, pursuant to General Assembly resolution 77/193 of 15 December 2022 – the Committee encourages States to address sexual and gender-based violence both by and against aid workers and peacekeepers.

In its resolution 2475 (2019), the Security Council seeks to establish safeguards for persons with disabilities in armed conflict and calls upon all parties to armed conflict to ensure humanitarian access to all civilians, including those with disabilities. It calls for States to end impunity, ensure justice and include persons with disabilities in peacebuilding and humanitarian efforts. States should uphold the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in conflict and ensure accessible reintegration, rehabilitation and psychosocial support for women and girls with disabilities.

In its resolution 1265 (1999), the Security Council emphasizes protection of women refugees and their “safe and unhindered access” to humanitarian assistance and “the need for combatants to ensure the safety, security and freedom of movement of United Nations and associated personnel, as well as personnel of international humanitarian organizations”.

In addition, in the UNHCR Handbook for the Protection of Women and Girls, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees recognized the correlation between the protection of women refugees and their participation in assistance-related measures. Existing health services are often inadequate for gender-specific needs: women’s health needs are served mainly in their role as mothers. In many camp settings, the focus of primary healthcare is on maternal health, rather than the full range of healthcare for women.

In its resolution 2171 (2014), the Security Council emphasizes the importance of early warning mechanisms to prevent situations that could result in atrocity crimes, including “genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and ethnic cleansing”. It highlights the role of women in conflict prevention, calling for the consideration of gender-related issues in conflict prevention discussions and greater “participation of women at all stages of mediation and post-conflict resolution”. States are guided to recognize gender-specific indicators, such as increases in gender-based violence, bride abduction, child marriage and trafficking, which can constitute early signs of impending conflict and crisis.

In its resolution 2474 (2019), the Security Council recognizes the impact on families, especially women, of persons reported missing as a result of armed conflict. It highlights the importance of allowing families to know the fate and whereabouts of missing relatives, consistent with applicable international humanitarian law. The consequences of missing persons are distinct for those – often women – who initiate searches for missing relatives and face legal impediments to addressing impunity. Parties to armed conflict must, wherever possible, provide access to information on missing persons, return remains to relatives and abstain from mass removal of graves. Peace agreements should also include continuing searches for missing persons.

The illicit trade in small arms and light weapons threatens global peace and disproportionately affects women and girls. Small arms and light weapons fuel conflict, forced displacement, sexual assault, domestic abuse, trafficking in persons and farmer-herder conflict. Under the Arms Trade Treaty, States are required to assess gender-based violence risks before authorizing arms transfers or exports; notably, article 7 (4) obliges exporting States Parties to consider the risk of conventional arms “being used to commit or facilitate serious acts of gender-based violence or serious acts of violence against women and children”. This places the responsibility on States to assess and prevent gendered harm caused by the trade in small arms and light weapons, since their proliferation can exacerbate vulnerability to sexual and gender-based violence and pose a barrier to the participation of women in politics.

In resolutions 2106 (2013) and 2467 (2019), the Security Council explicitly refers to the Arms Trade Treaty, emphasizing the role of arms control in preventing conflict-related sexual and gender-based violence. The Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, is the seminal legally binding global instrument to address small arms and light weapons and requires States Parties to criminalize illicit manufacturing and trade.

As seen in the reporting under the Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects, adopted in 2001, an increasing number of States are integrating gender considerations into national arms control. Regionally, such instruments as the Central African Convention for the Control of Small Arms and Light Weapons, Their Ammunition and All Parts and Components That Can Be Used for Their Manufacture, Repair and Assembly, the Bamako Declaration on an African Common Position on the Illicit Proliferation, Circulation and Trafficking of Small Arms and Light Weapons and the Inter-American Convention against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Ammunition, Explosives, and Other Related Materials affirm that States have a duty to restrict arms trafficking and prevent weapons from entering illicit markets. The Programme of Action complements these frameworks by promoting improved legislation, arms tracing and international cooperation.

Despite these commitments, inconsistent enforcement and fragmented regulations across jurisdictions still facilitate the illicit flow of small arms and light weapons. There is therefore an urgent need to strengthen corporate due diligence, harmonize arms control laws and integrate a gender lens into disarmament strategies to address the disproportionate impact of illicit small arms and light weapons on women and vulnerable communities. In this regard, the Committee highlights the report of 2024 of the Secretary-General on women and peace and security (S/2024/671), in which he highlighted Security Council resolutions 2122 (2013) and 2493 (2019) and encouraged States to “better align policies on women peace and security and arms control”.

Sustainable Development Goal 16 sets out the commitment to promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. Notably, target 16.3 is aimed at promoting the rule of law at the national and international levels and ensuring equal access to justice for all. States should take note that Goal 16 envisions the effective reduction in corruption, financial crimes and illicit arms flows by 2030. This Goal also highlights the nexus between women and peace and security and small arms and light weapons: “Small arms control converges with the women peace and security agenda on all its four interconnected pillars, namely participation, prevention, protection, and relief and recovery”.

In the United Nations Gender Guidelines for Mine Action Programmes, States are urged to “apply a gender lens as part of a comprehensive and inclusive approach to planning, implementing and monitoring programmes to ensure protection for all and to ensure that ‘no one is left behind’”. In its resolution 1325 (2000), the Security Council emphasizes that the special needs of women and girls must be taken into account in relation to mine clearance. In resolution 2365 (2017), a stand-alone resolution on mine action, the Council calls upon “all parties to armed conflicts to end immediately and definitively any indiscriminate use of explosive devices in violation of international humanitarian law”.

In its resolution 58/22 of 4 April 2025, the Human Rights Council highlighted the importance of mine action in peacekeeping operations and humanitarian responses, calling for international assistance in the care, rehabilitation and reintegration of victims. A central sine qua non of the resolution is its emphasis on the direct and indirect impact of anti-personnel mines on women and girls, especially within the context of intersecting and overlapping forms of discrimination and gender stereotypes. It parallels the goal of the women and peace and security agenda on participation, promoting the engagement of women, including women with disabilities, in mine action programmes.

Through the adoption by the General Assembly of the Global Framework for Through-life Conventional Ammunition Management, States have committed to strengthening transparency in ammunition transfers to prevent gender-based violence. Under the Framework, arms control forums are encouraged to focus on supporting gender perspectives in arms control. In 2024, the Secretary-General stressed that arms transfers serve as early warnings of conflict-related sexual violence and advocating the strengthening of assessment mechanisms. He also called for greater “enforcement of arms embargoes, improved tracing and the upholding of accountability in arms exports with respect to contexts where gender-based violence is prevalent” (S/2024/671, para. 53).

The Convention on Cluster Munitions includes reference to the need for gender-sensitive victim assistance. In the Lausanne Action Plan, adopted at the Second Review Conference of the Convention on Cluster Munitions, States undertook to: promote inclusive and gender-balanced participation in implementation activities; integrate gender and diversity considerations into clearance operations; collect and analyse disaggregated data to guide educational initiatives; and ensure that victim assistance efforts are tailored to age-, gender- and disability-specific needs.

According to the commentary of 2017 on common article 1 of the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949,⁹ High Contracting Parties are required “to refrain from transferring weapons if there is an expectation…that such weapons would be used to violate the Conventions”. This mirrors article 6 (3) of the Arms Trade Treaty, which prohibits the authorization of arms transfers on the same basis. States should consider these normative determinations aimed at preventing conflict-related sexual and gender-based violence arising from the trade in small arms and light weapons. At the Fifth Conference of States Parties to the Arms Trade Treaty in 2019, States Parties agreed to strive for gender balance in their delegations.

9. See https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/gcii-1949/article-1/commentary/2017#_ Toc444869293. ↩

States should recognize the emphasis in Security Council resolution 2467 (2019) on the nexus between the arms trade and gender-based violence: “exporting States Parties shall take into account the risk of covered conventional arms…being used to commit or facilitate serious acts of gender-based violence…against women and children”. Read with Security Council resolution 2467 (2019), resolution 1820 (2008) provides an accountability paradigm that can be expanded to cover all parties to armed conflict, including States that are indirectly funding gender-based violence through trade in arms or conflict minerals. States are encouraged to better align their policies with the women and peace and security agenda and prioritize the participation of women in arms control, given that “less than one quarter of the 110 national action plans on women and peace and security include references to disarmament and arms control actions in the monitoring framework” (S/2024/671, para. 54).

Attacks on women and girl human rights defenders, peace activists, environmental rights defenders and student activists not only violate fundamental rights protected under international human rights law but also shrink civic space and erode the prospects for sustainable peace and inclusive conflict resolution. Under the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, all individuals, including students, have the right to promote and protect human rights without fear of retaliation. Under article 12 thereof, States are called upon to safeguard all human rights defenders, including from violence, threats, retaliation and discrimination.

Complementing these norms, in general recommendation No. 30, the Committee emphasizes the importance of protecting women human rights defenders in conflict and post-conflict settings, while its general recommendation No. 40 is aimed at ensuring the equal participation of women in all areas of public life, including activism.

The role of students in climate change and peace activism has created a forward-looking, long-term and systemic approach to justice. In its resolution 2419 (2018), the Security Council recognizes the intersection between women and peace and security and youth and peace and security and the importance of the leadership of young women in peacebuilding. In resolutions 2250 (2015), 2419 (2018) and 2535 (2020), the Council recognizes the contribution of youth to conflict prevention and resolution, and in 2419 (2018), it calls for “particular attention to the inclusion of young women”. In his report of 2024 on youth and peace and security, the Secretary-General identifies issues such as the surge in “digital threats and armed conflicts and the shrinking of civic space” as posing “serious protection concerns for young people” (S/2024/207, summary). The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has warned against Internet shutdowns and digital blackouts during civil strife.¹⁰

10. See https://news.un.org/en/story/2026/01/1166813. ↩

The High Contracting Parties to the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict should refrain from any act of hostility against historical monuments, works of art or places of worship constituting peoples’ cultural or spiritual heritage.

In its resolution 2347 (2017), the Security Council condemned the unlawful destruction of cultural heritage and the looting and smuggling of cultural property from archaeological sites, museums, libraries, archives and other sites by terrorists and violent extremists. The destruction of cultural property with discriminatory intent can be charged as a crime against humanity, and the intentional destruction of cultural and religious property and symbols can be considered evidence of intent to destroy a group under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Genocide Convention). In many cultures, women serve as transgenerational custodians of tangible and intangible cultural heritage. While attacks on culture can be based on misogyny, women’s and girls’ rights may be subordinated to a patriarchal interpretation of culture. Women cultural rights defenders should be entitled to reclaim the interpretation of culture in the full exercise of their rights to participate in and protect cultural life without discrimination.

While extractive industries pose a risk to fragile industries and non-renewable natural resources, such as oil, gas, minerals and timber, they also have deeply gendered impacts, such as sexual violence against and the displacement or exploitation of women in mining communities. States and transnational and national corporations must monitor and combat the gendered harms of extractive industries.

In its resolution 2467 (2019), the Security Council highlights the link between conflict-related sexual violence and the illicit trade in natural resources, including conflict minerals. It recognizes the need for private sector actors to ensure that proceeds from materials acquired for their production processes do not fund armed groups that perpetuate conflict and sexual violence in conflict and post-conflict situations and “reiterates its demand for the complete cessation with immediate effect by all parties to armed conflict of all acts of sexual violence and its call for these parties to make and implement specific time-bound commitments to combat sexual violence”.

The use of food insecurity and starvation as deliberate methods of warfare are recurring challenges in modern conflicts that disproportionately affect women and children. In conflict zones, women – as primary caregivers – are especially vulnerable, often risking sexual violence while seeking food for their families. The deliberate targeting of crops, water sources and food markets exacerbates these conditions, pushing already-fragile communities towards famine. The consequences of such deprivation are structural, not merely temporal; they ripple into long-term health crises and increased maternal mortality.

States must take note of the preamble to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, wherein the concern is expressed that “in situations of poverty women have the least access to food, health, education, training and opportunities for employment and other needs”. Under article 14 (2) (h), States are required to ensure that women enjoy adequate living conditions. According to the World Food Programme, nearly 60% of those facing severe hunger are women and girls.¹¹

11. See https://wfpusa.org/work/people/women/. ↩

The adoption of resolution 2417 (2018) marked the first time that the Security Council acknowledged the link between hunger and conflict. It affirmed that intentionally depriving civilians of food – whether through attacks on agricultural infrastructure or denial of humanitarian aid – constitutes a method of warfare under international humanitarian law, reinforcing article 54, on the prohibition of starvation as a method of war, in Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949.

The deliberate denial of access to food and water is abhorrent and violates international human rights law and international humanitarian law concerning the protection of civilians in times of war. The Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of NonInternational Armed Conflicts (Protocol II) prohibits attacks on objects indispensable to civilian survival (art. 14) and reads: “if the civilian population is suffering…owing to a lack of the supplies essential for its survival…, relief actions…shall be undertaken”, under certain conditions (art. 18). In the Genocide Convention, the definition of genocide includes “deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part”. This is reinforced in the Rome Statute through article 8 (2) (b) (xxv), which criminalizes using starvation as a method of warfare, encompassing the deprivation of foodstuffs, water and other objects essential for civilian survival.

In its resolution 2730 (2024), the Security Council condemns the “unlawful denial of humanitarian access and depriving civilians of objects indispensable to their survival, which impede relief supplies and access for responses to conflict-induced food insecurity in situations of armed conflict”. It considers that such acts may constitute violations of international humanitarian law. It recalls Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, which prohibits starvation of civilians as a method of warfare and protects objects “indispensable to the survival” of civilians. Under Protocol I, “indispensable objects” are defined “as foodstuffs, agricultural areas for the production of foodstuffs, crops, livestock, drinking water installations and supplies and irrigation works”. States should note that customary international humanitarian law mandates that parties to conflict must allow and facilitate the rapid, unimpeded passage of humanitarian aid to civilians in need, subject to their right of control (rule 55). The United Nations Population Fund considers access to menstrual health products to be indispensable for survival in times of conflict.

In its resolutions 1502 (2003) and 2175 (2014), the Security Council re-emphasized the safety and security of humanitarian personnel in the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance. Attacks against healthcare workers, including nurses, are repugnant under international humanitarian law.

Under the Fourth Geneva Convention and Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, refugees and stateless persons are “protected persons”. All noncombatants, regardless of nationality, are covered by all provisions of humanitarian law applicable to civilians in wartime (Protocol I, arts. 50 and 73). This protection applies regardless of refugee or displacement status. The Fourth Geneva Convention expressly prohibits the forcible transfer of civilians from their own territory, regardless of motive: “individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited” (art. 49). The Genocide Convention identifies “forcibly transferring children of the group to another group” as an act of genocide. The transfer of children, including girls, highlights the gendered dimension of the crime of genocide.

In its resolutions on women and peace and security, the Security Council notes that gender inequalities often worsen during forced displacement, when exposure to gender-based violence increases and access to resources decreases. In general recommendation No. 30 and the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement of 1998, it is warned that forcible transfer disrupts families and kinship networks, creating new risks for women and girls, in particular for expectant mothers, women heads of household, older women and women with disabilities. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, adopted in 2000, also highlights the trafficking risks that displaced women and girls face. Peace treaties should clarify the prevention of mass forcible transfers and empower women decision makers.

The cardinal international humanitarian law principles of distinction, proportionality and precaution require parties to armed conflict to “at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants and between civilian objects and military objectives” (Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, art. 48). Pursuant to article 56 of the Fourth Geneva Convention, occupying Powers, with national and local cooperation, must maintain medical and public health services and combat the spread of contagious diseases. In 2016, the Security Council unanimously adopted the first resolution on healthcare in armed conflict, noting that intentional attacks against hospitals and medical personnel are violations of humanitarian law (see resolution 2286 (2016)). It also called for unimpeded passage for medical and humanitarian personnel exclusively engaged in medical duties and their equipment and medicine to all people in need.

In line with Security Council resolution 2286 (2016), medical personnel should engage in their duties with “moral independence, compassion and respect for human dignity”. In one report by a United Nations independent international commission of inquiry addressing deliberate attacks on sexual and reproductive healthcare facilities, “reproductive violence” was defined as a distinct form of gender-based violence targeting autonomy and reproductive capacity through harmful acts or omissions. The commission of inquiry indicated that such violence is prohibited under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. The Genocide Convention identifies “measures intended to prevent births within the group” as an act of genocide.

In general recommendation No. 30, the Committee calls for a national response to gender-based violence and HIV, in line with Security Council resolution 2106 (2013). States are urged to provide non-discriminatory reproductive health services. In its resolution 2122 (2013), the Council calls for the provision of the full range of services to women affected by armed conflict, including health services to address pregnancies resulting from rape.

Mental health and psychosocial services in humanitarian responses and emergency care services in conflict and post-conflict situations were endorsed by States in their statements made during the Arria-formula meeting of the Security Council held on 25 March 2022 on the theme “Ensuring access to mental health and psychosocial support in conflict, post-conflict and humanitarian settings” (see A/76/854-S/2022/456). In line with Council resolution 1889 (2009), States must be encouraged to provide access to mental health services, along with sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights services.

In its resolution 2565 (2021), the Security Council recognized that armed conflicts and pandemics can exacerbate each other. It emphasized the need for “international collaboration…, in particular by enabling equitable global access to quality, safe, efficacious and affordable diagnostics, therapeutics, medicines and vaccines, and essential health technologies”. While in general recommendation No. 30, the Committee references “situations of concern” and “states of emergency”, States should note that, in general recommendation No. 40, it specifically highlights pandemics and emphasizes the nexus between the women and peace and security agenda and women’s leadership in pandemic avoidance.

Terrorism and violent extremism affect the human rights of women and girls, including their health, education and participation in public life. Extremist groups frequently exploit harmful hypermasculine norms in their discourse and recruitment of women and girls.

In its resolution 2242 (2015), the Security Council calls for the greater integration of the women and peace and security agenda in efforts to counter violent extremism, and advocates evidence-based policy on the participation of women in counter-terrorism strategies and data collection to measure the way in which such strategies affect women’s human rights and women’s organizations

In the same resolution, the Security Council also expresses its intention to invite women’s organizations to brief the Council on country-specific situations and relevant thematic areas and reiterates the importance of engagement by men and boys as partners in promoting the participation of women in peace processes. While gender equality in the community and a gender perspective in security can help to prevent violent extremism, efforts to engage women and women’s organizations in prevention of violent extremism activities can risk essentializing and instrumentalizing women in the overmilitarization of the State. States should avoid gender, racial, ethnic and religious profiling and reproducing stereotypes that may inform violent narratives. Inclusive strategies to prevent violent extremism should be developed in consultation and collaboration with women’s organizations.

Educational violence can be understood as the deliberate denial of education, manifested through school closures for women and girls, attacks on schools, militarization of educational institutions and exclusionary policies targeting women and girls, including the systematic erasure of women’s education and access to learning and knowledge, in violation of their intellectual autonomy and empowerment. Pursuant to Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights general comment No. 13 (1999) on the right to education and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women general recommendation No. 36 (2017) on the right of girls and women to education, education is an “empowerment right” that is indivisible from other rights. In its resolution 2601 (2021), the seminal resolution safeguarding education in conflict, the Security Council emphasizes alarming rises in such attacks, noting their insidious implications for global peace and security. While girls’ education serves to reduce the prevalence of child marriage during conflict, gender-sensitive peace education and academic independence are conflict prevention tools.

Attacks on girls’ schools and the deliberate, widespread denial of girls’ and women’s education on gender grounds constitute violations of the right to equal education under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and, in situations of armed conflict may amount to violations of international humanitarian law as set out in the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949. Conflict-related educational violence as a systemic form of gender discrimination may be tantamount to a crime against humanity, specifically persecution on gender grounds. According to article 7 (2) (g) of the Rome Statute, “persecution” includes the intentional and severe deprivation of fundamental rights contrary to international law by reason of the identity of the group or collectivity.

The Safe Schools Declaration of 2015 contains a call for safeguards against military use of educational facilities and the investigation and prosecution of such violations. In its resolution 2601 (2021), the Security Council expresses grave concern about parties to conflict continuing “to violate with impunity the relevant provisions of applicable international law”, including “attacks on schools and their infrastructure”, the “abduction of children”, especially girls, and the “use of schools for military purposes”. States should note that, in resolution 2601 (2021), the Council emphasizes risks posed to girls due to attacks on schools and sexual violence at school or on the way to and from school. Schools are a powerful symbol of human dignity, and women and girls are often denied access to them as a tool of warfare.

In July 2025, the International Criminal Court issued warrants of arrest against leaders of the Taliban, representing the first time that the Prosecutor had charged the crime of gender persecution on its own. The Court maintains that there are reasonable grounds to believe that there exists a crime against humanity under article 7 (1) (h) of the Rome Statute of persecution on the basis of gender, targeting not only women and girls but also those perceived as their allies. This opens the door for gender persecution as a stand-alone charge in the fight against impunity. To create full accountability for gender-based crimes, in general recommendation No. 40, the Committee recognizes the codification of the crime of “gender apartheid” as being crucial.

The AI revolution and digital transformation are reshaping the global landscape of conflict. The Committee acknowledges that technology offers critical gender empowerment tools in conflict, including for tracking early warning signs of conflict and documenting violence – for example, using pattern recognition to identify trafficking in women and gathering forensic evidence on sexual violence – via data analysis and digital forensics.

A new and widening chasm – the algorithmic divide – threatens global gender equity. Women lacking access to AI systems and data governance may be excluded from post-conflict reconstruction and security. This divide is particularly acute when electricity, water, Internet access, mobile penetration, algorithmic infrastructure and computational resources for women are limited. An efflorescence of new global norms on AI is useful in addressing gendered asymmetries in conflict prevention. In the Global Digital Compact, adopted by the General Assembly in 2024 (resolution 79/1, annex I), Member States undertook a commitment to data privacy and security and data governance. In its resolution 78/265 of 21 March 2024, entitled “Seizing the opportunities of safe, secure and trustworthy artificial intelligence systems for sustainable development”, the Assembly emphasizes the importance of protecting human rights, ensuring the “governance of safe, secure and trustworthy artificial intelligence systems” and “mitigating bias encoded in data sets and otherwise combating algorithmic discrimination” and “resolves to bridge the artificial intelligence and other digital divides between and within countries”, while ensuring that technology transfers benefit all in accelerating the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.

Technology-facilitated violence against women and girls continues to spawn new and pervasive forms of violence, such as non-consensual intimate image-sharing, doxing, cybertrafficking, sextortion and deepfakes. Digital platforms are also exploited by the manosphere to spread gendered disinformation and fake news before, during and after conflict. Targeted hate speech can have a chilling effect on the participation of women in peacebuilding, and cyberviolence – particularly attacks on women political leaders in times of crisis – necessitates gender-responsive action and compliance with due diligence obligations by technology platforms and businesses. Human Rights Council resolution 49/21 and the report of 2023 of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression (A/78/288) illuminate the role of gender in relation to misinformation, which is often magnified during conflict and emergencies, and specifically highlight the targeting of women leaders, human rights defenders, including defenders of the rights of lesbian, bisexual, transgender and intersex women, and women journalists.

AI-fuelled digital violence is rapidly shapeshifting. From synthetic media to virtual reality, gender-based violence is emerging in unanticipated forms, paralleling real-world gender-based violence. Cyberspace can also serve as a platform for cybercrimes to target, traffic and abduct women for terrorist purposes. For example, Da’esh, Boko Haram and other groups use social media platforms, including videos, blogs and social media messaging, to recruit young girls.

Cyberscams and cybercrimes cause global disruption, affecting the most vulnerable, including older women. The Global Anti-Scam Alliance estimates that global scam losses amount to over $1 trillion annually. Data breaches, distributed denial of service, spyware, ransomware and malware have a differential impact on women’s mobile telephone use and connectivity.

The Committee calls for regulatory frameworks and relies on the bedrock of its general recommendations, including general recommendation No. 35, in which it established that gender-based violence “manifests in…technology-mediated settings and in the contemporary globalized world it transcends national boundaries”; general recommendation No. 38 (2020) on trafficking in women and girls in the context of global migration, in which it highlighted the use of digital technology for trafficking; and general recommendation No. 40, in which it alerted States to “emerging security threats caused by new technologies”. In the light of the continuum of gender-based violence before, during and after conflict, gender asymmetry in the AI workforce may be a root cause of an explosion of technology-facilitated violence against women and girls.

Cyberspace is a growing borderless battleground. As AI introduces a new era, unpredictable risks emerge, especially in warfare. Abusers exploit AI-generated content and chatbots to refine tactics. Facial mapping, virtual reality and generative tools misrepresent conflict. AI-facilitated surveillance tools and AI-generated media images can augment tools of war.

In his policy brief on A New Agenda for Peace, the Secretary-General highlights the dangers of unregulated military technology, including the weaponization of applications of digital technologies. The use of AI to make targeting decisions for drones and lethal autonomous weapon systems raises concerns over embedded gender bias. Algorithms are only as reliable as the data used to train them. AI systems require massive data sets, and numerous studies unmask gender biases in the data and gender asymmetry of system designers. Consequences of encoded bias are heightened in military applications and could expose women to distinct risks. Integrating new technologies in warfare could magnify gendered biases. Large language models and machine learning systems may rely on historically biased training data, leading to the potential miscategorization of targets and the misidentification of women in conflict zones. In both present and foreseeable conflicts, machines are increasingly poised to make autonomous decisions with lethal consequences, raising profound legal, ethical and humanitarian concerns.

The Secretary-General has called for the negotiation of a legally binding treaty to prohibit and regulate lethal autonomous weapon systems by 2026. The General Assembly has expressed concern over the military use of AI, citing the potential for gendered harms arising from historically biased data sets and algorithmic discrimination in the development and deployment of lethal autonomous weapon systems (see resolution 80/57 of 1 December 2025). In their submissions to the Secretary-General for his report of 2024 on such systems (A/79/88), several States highlighted that the consequences of bias in machine learning can be amplified in war, resulting in the unintentional targeting of women civilians, and that the development of lethal autonomous weapon systems must comply with the international humanitarian law principles of distinction, proportionality and precaution.

Sounding the alarm on nuclear armament, the Secretary-General has warned that “humanity is on a knife’s edge”.¹² Nuclear weapons pose distinct, compounded and disproportionate threats to women and girls, especially in conflict and its aftermath. Pregnant women exposed to radiation face higher rates of maternal mortality, stillbirth and children born with congenital disabilities. The preamble to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women includes a call for “general and complete disarmament, in particular nuclear disarmament under strict and effective international control”.

12. See www.armscontrol.org/act/2024-07/features/un-chief-says-humanity-nuclear-knifes-edge. ↩

The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons is the bedrock of the global nuclear non-proliferation regime, aiming to pursue non-proliferation, disarmament and the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. It was the first gender-sensitive international nuclear agreement as it contained recognition of the disproportionate gendered effects of radiation and the physical and psychological toll of nuclear production and testing on women and girls. The expiration of strategic arms reduction treaties and the mounting global rush for new arms mark a grave moment for women and peace and security. In addressing the threat of nuclear conflict, the Committee calls for the equal representation of women in negotiating successor frameworks and dialogue among nuclear powers.

Climate change exacerbates existing inequality and has a disproportionate impact on women and girls. Following climate disasters, risks of gender-based violence, including child marriage, intensify. Climate change may increase the risk of conflict “in contexts marked by low economic development, high economic dependence on climate-sensitive activities, high or increasing social marginalization and fragile governance” (Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, technical summary). In general recommendation No. 40, the Committee highlights the role of women in combating newly emerging threats, such as climate emergencies, and, in general recommendation No. 37 (2018) on the gender-related dimensions of disaster risk reduction in the context of climate change, the Committee provides significant guidance for linking climate change to structural gender inequality and justice, and centres women as climate leaders rather than merely victims.

The full and equal participation of women in every aspect and at every level of climate policymaking is essential to achieving long-term climate goals. Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, over 80 gender-related decisions have been adopted. At the seventh session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, in 2001, States agreed to pursue gender equality in their work under the Framework Convention and the Kyoto Protocol thereto. In 2017, at the twenty-third session of the Conference of the Parties, States adopted the first gender action plan to embed gender-responsiveness at all levels of climate policy. The Lima work programme on gender was subsequently adopted to support gender-responsive climate policy; and, at the twenty-fifth Conference of the Parties, an enhanced programme was adopted: the Belém gender action plan.

In the Convention on Biological Diversity, the vital role that women play in conservation is recognized. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, contains a reference to “the important role played by women in regions affected by desertification and/or drought, particularly in rural areas of developing countries, and the importance of ensuring the full participation of both men and women at all levels in programmes to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought”. One of the aims of the Strategic Plan 2025–2034 of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat is to ensure the full, equitable, inclusive, effective and gender-responsive representation of and participation by women and girls in wetland biodiversity decision-making. As to the Paris Agreement, States should “consider their respective obligations on human rights,…the rights of Indigenous peoples, local communities, migrants, children, persons with disabilities and people in vulnerable situations and the right to development, as well as gender equality, empowerment of women and intergenerational equity”. Under the Agreement, Parties must recognize the importance of approaches involving, “inter alia, mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology transfer and capacity-building”, while enhancing private sector participation in the implementation of nationally determined contributions. States should also take into consideration the disproportionate impacts of climate change on women when developing mitigation and adaptation initiatives and gender-responsive climate finance goals under their respective nationally determined contributions.

In 2023, the General Assembly adopted resolution 77/276 of 29 March requesting an advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice on the obligations of States in respect of climate change, including with regard to protection from anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and the legal consequences for causing significant harm to the climate system and other parts of the environment. In its advisory opinion of 23 July 2025, the International Court of Justice characterized climate change as an “existential threat”, affirmed States’ responsibility to protect the environment and highlighted general recommendation No. 37, which serves, along with other fundamental norms, including international climate treaties, customary international law and international human rights law, to safeguard the environment and “intergenerational equity”. In a statement, the Secretary-General heralded the opinion as “the power of young people to make a difference”.¹³

13. See www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statements/2025-07-23/secretary-generals-message-the-advisory-opinion-of-the-international-court-of-justice. ↩

In its advisory opinion of 21 May 2024, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea addressed due diligence obligations of States in relation to sea level rise, which has a disparate impact on women. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea lays out the applicable legal framework to address deep-sea mining, piracy and armed robbery at sea, as women environmental defenders and Indigenous women in the blue economy face security threats that should be addressed through the Convention’s rights-based approach. Domestic maritime policy should establish the vital role of women in contemporary maritime security.

In its resolutions 2242 (2015) and 2282 (2016), the Security Council recognized the link between inclusive sustainable development and lasting peace, pointing to underlying causes of conflict: poverty, environmental stress and gender inequality. In its resolution 2282 (2016), the Council identified anti-poverty efforts as a key determinant of effective conflict prevention strategies. The feminization of poverty is both a cause and consequence of conflict. Climate security and peacebuilding are inclusive processes and should be aimed at preventing conflict and complementing the overall economic empowerment of women.

The private sector should assume shared responsibility in peacebuilding through the pursuit of gender-responsive economic security, sustainability, empowerment (through the United Nations Global Compact) and human rights due diligence (through the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights).

In the United Nations Convention against Cybercrime; Strengthening International Cooperation for Combating Certain Crimes Committed by Means of Information and Communications Technology Systems and for the Sharing of Evidence in Electronic Form of Serious Crimes, it is recognized that cybercrime is changing the face of organized crime and a range of cyber-dependent crimes are identified (terrorism, financial crimes and smuggling), including cyber-enabled gender-based crimes, such as cybertrafficking, the non-consensual dissemination of images and grooming for the purpose of committing a sexual offence against a child.

In 2022, United Nations experts called upon the international community to end the so-called “war on drugs” and promote policies rooted in human rights. They noted that: “globally, women are serving prison sentences in relation to drug offences at a much higher rate … than men, despite their often low-level, non-violent and first-time involvement in such crimes”.¹⁴ Discriminatory gender stereotyping of women’s “moral” conduct informs sentencing. In her report of 30 April 2024, the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health highlighted that the “‘war on drugs’…has added to harms at both the individual and the societal levels through its detrimental consequences” (A/HRC/56/52, para. 33). In 2024, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights emphasized the urgent need for a human rights-based approach to drug regulation: “instead of punitive measures, we need gender-sensitive and evidence-based drug policies, grounded by public health”.¹⁵

14. See www.ohchr.org/en/statements-and-speeches/2022/06/end-war-drugs-and-promote-policies-rooted-human-rights-un-experts. ↩
15. See https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/12/1157836. ↩

In his report of 23 August 2004 on the rule of law and transitional justice in conflict and post-conflict societies, the Secretary-General acknowledges that “the heightened vulnerability of minorities, women, children, prisoners and detainees, displaced persons, refugees and others, which is evident in all conflict and post-conflict situations, brings an element of urgency to the imperative of restoration of the rule of law” (S/2004/616, para. 2). In his follow-up report of 12 October 2011 on the same topic, he recognizes that United Nations programmes on women’s access to justice have been strengthened through Security Council resolutions 1820 (2008), 1888 (2009), 1889 (2009) and 1960 (2010) (S/2011/634, para. 42). He emphasizes that “transitional justice processes should ensure that the perspectives of women and children are taken into account” (S/2011/634, para. 22).

Transitional justice mechanisms should cover enforced disappearances, with a focus on their gendered impacts and State responsibility for femicide and other forms of gender-based violence, which correlate with enforced disappearances. The International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance protects children born during their mother’s enforced disappearance.

As stated by the Secretary-General in his remarks to the press on the release of the report entitled The Security We Need: Rebalancing Military Spending for a Sustainable and Peaceful Future, in 2025, “the evidence is clear: excessive military spending does not guarantee peace…A more secure world begins by investing at least as much in fighting poverty as we do in fighting wars”.¹⁶ As highlighted in the report, in 2024, global military spending reached an all-time high of $2.7 trillion and “each dollar allocated to the military generates more than twice the greenhouse gas emissions of a dollar spent elsewhere”. The rise in military spending is counter to the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, in which a call was made to reduce “excessive military expenditures”. A stark reality was highlighted by the Secretary-General in his report of 2023 on women and peace and security: while military spending increases, women’s organizations struggle for resources (S/2023/725, para. 1).

16. See www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/press-events/2025-09-09/secretary-generals-remarks-the-press-the-release-of-the-report-the-security-we-need-rebalancing-military-spending-for-sustainable-and-peaceful-future-delivered. ↩

In his policy brief on A New Agenda for Peace, the Secretary-General acknowledges that institutional weakness, impunity and the spread of arms aggravate the risks of gender-based and sexual violence in conflict settings; and calls for a commitment to transforming the gendered power dynamics in peace and security. The present addendum serves to reinforce the focus in general recommendation No. 30 on preventive diplomacy and the commitment in Security Council resolution 2282 (2016) to addressing the root causes of conflict. At the crossroads of generational shifts in the geopolitical landscape and international rules-based legal order, through the present addendum to general recommendation No. 30, the Committee expresses renewed faith in multilateralism and the transformative power of the women and peace and security agenda.